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THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO - DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 




ERASMUS — HOLBEIN 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



BY 



DOUGLAS GORDON CRAWFORD 

Huntington School, Boston, Massachusetts 

Formerly Instructor in English in Phillips Academy 

Andover, Massachusetts 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1919 

All rights reserved 



\\ 






Copyright, 1919, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 191 9. 



Notfriooti ^ress 

J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 

FEB 26 1919 
©CI.A511745 



ROBERT McMURDY 



PREFACE 

One of the most comforting passages in a very comforting 
book reads: " Every valley shall be exalted, and every 
mountain and hill shall be made low : and the crooked 
shall be made straight, and the rough places plain." And 
during the past six years, while gathering together the 
material that is to be found within these covers, the writer 
has tried hard to keep the idea brought out in this quota- 
tion constantly before him. He has tried to make the 
study of English seem simple and understandable. 

The book does not pretend to be an elaborate treatise on 
English composition. The author has tried to make it 
merely an introduction to the study of English, particu- 
larly suitable for the early years of high school. As the 
book, however, covers the entire field of English composi- 
tion, even though it be in an elementary form, it may 
serve as the only text-book in advanced classes that are 
doing intensive work; or in night-schools, where mature 
students are anxious to cover the ground as rapidly as 
possible. It is divided into thirty chapters, a chapter for 
each school week ; and each chapter is subdivided into five 
lessons for the first twenty, and four for the last ten chap- 
ters, a lesson for each meeting of the class. The lessons 
are, as a general thing, so short that, in connection with 
each one, the students could be expected to do some out- 
side reading. In case there are less than five periods a 

vii 



viii PREFACE 

week given to English, one of the lessons could be omitted, 
or two of them could be combined into one. 

The book contains some review of grammar, a discussion 
of some of the principles of composition, and some sugges- 
tions about penmanship and about speaking and reading 
aloud. A good many selections for reading have been 
inserted, and a number of gems of poetry, which may also 
be read or committed to memory. The writer thinks that 
one of the best helps to good writing is good and interesting 
reading. 

At the end of each of the chapters, beginning with Chapter 
II and ending with Chapter XX, is a fifth lesson entitled 
" Penmanship, Dictation, or Memorizing Exercise. " These 
exercises may be used for various purposes. The student 
may write them out and bring them to class simply as 
exercises in penmanship, or he may memorize them and — 
in class — recite or write them out. They may also be 
used as dictation exercises. In the French schools a great 
deal is made of dictation; not only because it trains in 
penmanship, spelling, and punctuation, but also because it 
helps to develop a close and keen attention on the part 
of the student. After the students have written out their 
dictation exercise, it is a good plan to have them correct 
their own or their neighbors' papers. The value of these 
dictation exercises cannot be overestimated. The writer 
would urge all teachers of English composition to read 
through, for further suggestions as to the importance of 
this kind of work, Professor Rollo Walter Brown's How the 
French Boy Learns to Write. 

In most of our schools definite instruction in penmanship 
is given. But there are still many in which no particular 
attention is paid to the subject. Moreover, there are so 



PREFACE lx 

many methods employed in the teaching of penmanship, 
that it has seemed advisable to give a few general directions 
for the use of teachers who want their pupils to write 
better, but who do not have the time or the inclination to 
follow, consistently and consecutively, any special method. 
It was for such schools and classes especially, that the 
first chapter of this book was prepared. 

A number of points that are absolutely clear to the great 
majority of students have not been touched upon; u it 
expletive" has not been mentioned. Likewise some other 
points which would tend to confuse and befuddle a student's 
mind, the subjunctive mood for instance, have not been 
discussed. The writer in this matter has followed the 
warning of the sane little jingle, — 

The centipede was happy quite, 
Until the toad for fun 

^Said, "Pray which leg comes after which ?" 
This worked her mind to such a pitch, 
She lay distracted in a ditch, 
Considering how to run. 

In the Appendix numerous subjects for themes have been 
given; and the writer would suggest that these be used 
quite freely, not only for work to be done at home, but also 
in school, on paper and qn the blackboards where, before 
the entire class, the instructor may make corrections and 
comments. The author would suggest that, in making 
corrections and comments, it is a good plan to follow wise 
old Ben Jonson's advice: "No more would I tell a green 
writer all his faults, lest I should make him grieve and 
faint, and at last despair. 7 ' 

Quite frequently, in their reading or in their study, 
students come across grammatical and rhetorical terms 



X PREFACE 

which are not discussed in the body of this book. For their 
convenience, a Glossary of these terms is given in the 
Appendix. As the definitions are quite full, this part of 
the Appendix might even be studied, as a preparation for 
the more difficult and more complicated work in composi- 
tion and rhetoric that will have to be taken up in the later 
years of a high school course. The same thing might be 
said about the Appendix section on Versification. 

There is in the Appendix a section giving some rules and 
exercises in spelling. Our spelling to-day is being subjected 
to so many changes and simplifications that it is almost 
impossible to lay down absolute rules. The ones that are 
given here will be found to be somewhat conservative, and 
consequently safe. In the Appendix, too, will be found a 
section giving additional exercises for Chapters III to XX 
inclusive. 

The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the 
many friends who have aided him in the preparation of this 
book, by means of criticism and suggestion; especially to 
Mr. H. Winthrop Peirce, vice-president of the Copley 
Society of Boston, Mr. Nathan C. Hamblin, Principal of 
the Punchard High School, Andover, Mr. William Spencer 
of the Huntington School, Boston, Mr. Addison B. Le 
Boutillier, and Mr. Robert W. Morse, of Andover and 
Boston, Professor W. F. Bryan of Northwestern University, 
and Mr. Ernest Palmer of Evanston, Illinois. He would 
thank too the authors of numerous books on Composition 
and Rhetoric to which he has frequently referred for 
enlightenment, and the editors of Webster's New Inter- 
national Dictionary, from which a great many of his 
definitions have been taken. He would also express his 
appreciation and his thanks to the Honorable Theodore 



PREFACE xi 

Roosevelt for permission to reprint a selection from his 
works; to Mr. Raymond Fairchild Beardsley for his 
poem " Service"; and to the following publishers who 
permitted him to use copyrighted material: to Charles 
Scribner's Sons for a paragraph from Stevenson's Travels 
with a Donkey; to Houghton Mifflin Company for 
selections from Holmes, Longfellow, Harte, Emerson, and 
Lowell; to John Lane Company for the poem "Vitae 
Lampada" by Henry Newbolt; to Doubleday, Page and 
Company for an extract from Charles H. Caffin's The 
Appreciation of the Drama; to G. P. Putnam's Sons for 
the greater part of a chapter from John Bascom's Phi- 
losophy of Rhetoric; to The Century Company for the 
selection from Mr. Roosevelt's The Round Up; to M. A. 
Donohue and Company for the selection from " Josh Bill- 
ings"; to the Atlantic Monthly for a paragraph from the 
" Contributors' Club " ; to Life Publishing Company for the 
poem "Finnigin to Flannigan" by S. W. Gillilan; to the 
Baltimore Sun for the article "Mr. Taft on College Yells" ; 
to the Chicago Tribune for the poem "Elia" by E. J. 
McPhelim ; to the London Times for the article on page 
263 ; and to Ginn and Company for paragraphs from 
two of their text-books. He \^ould express his thanks, also, 
to the Taber Prang Art Company of Springfield, Mass., for 
the pictures, Lorna Doone, Monreale, Thomas Carlyle, 
The Light of the World, Napoleon on the " Bellerophon," 
The Angelus, Rheims Cathedral, and Pompeii; and to 
Gramstorff Bros., Inc., of Maiden, Mass., for the pictures, 
Erasmus, A Huguenot, St. Jerome, and The Night-Watch. 
Most especially would he acknowledge his gratitude to 
Mr. Arthur W. Leonard, Head of the English Department 
in Phillips Andover Academy. Mr. Leonard has read with 



xii PREFACE 

patience and thoughtfulness the greater part of the manu- 
script, and has contributed helpful advice. During seven 
years association, the writer has felt his counsel ever wise 
and stimulating, his sympathy never failing ; and he trusts 
that something of his inspiration has found its way into 
this work. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Some General Suggestions' i 

II. Reading Aloud 10 

III. Simple Sentence 19 

IV. Nouns and Verbs 25 

V. Verbs (Continued) 32 

VI. Adjectives .39 

VII. Adverbs 47 

VIII. Compound Sentence, Conjunctions ... 54 

IX. Pronouns 66 

X. Pronouns (Continued) 74 

XI. Pronouns (Continued) 83 

XII. Capitals . . 90 

XIII. Phrases, Prepositions 96 

XIV. Infinitives, Participles 101 

XV. Clauses . 106 

XVI. Clauses (Continued) 116 

XVII. The Comma . . 123 

XVIII. Common Errors 128 

XIX. Variety in Sentence Structure . . .134 

XX. The Paragraph 138 

XXI. Unity 151 

XXII. Coherence 160 

XXIII. Emphasis 168 

XXIV. Forms of Discourse . . . . • . .178 
XXV. How to Write a Theme 187 

XXVI. Narration 204 

xiii 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVII. Description . 213 

XXVIII. Exposition 226 

XXIX. Argumentation 238 

XXX. Letter Writing 245 

Appendix 

I. Adjectives, Adverbs, and Verbs . . .273 

II. Subjects for Themes 278 

III. Telegrams and Advertisements .... 290 

IV. Versification 292 

V. Glossary and Abbreviations .... 295 

VI. Outline for a Debate .312 

VII. Spelling Rules and Exercises . . . .314 

VIII. Additional Exercises 320 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Erasmus, Holbein Frontispiece \^ 

FACING PAGE 

Thomas Carlyle, Whistler 8 \S 

A Railway Station, Frith 30 

Monreale . . 44 ^ 

Napoleon on the " Bellerophon," Or chard son . . . 63 u x 

Rheims Cathedral 104 t/ 

A Track Team . . •. . 132 v 

Lorna Doone, Wontner 144 / 

The One Absolutely Unselfish Friend . . . ... 186 v 

Theme, Revised and Corrected 196 v 

A Huguenot, Millais 208 l 

Pompeii . . . . . . . . . .219 

The Light of the World, Hunt 234^. 

Saint Jerome, Dilrer . 245 

The Night- Watch, Rembrandt 261 

The Angelus, Millet . . 271 



xv 



INTRODUCTION 

To the Student: 

A very natural and a very sensible question for you to 
ask is, "Why am I studying Composition?" The answer 

— in a nut-shell — is this, "You are studying English 
Composition in order that you may become more effective 
and more useful; in order that you may earn a larger 
salary ; and in order that you may live on a higher intel- 
lectual plane." 

No matter what occupation you take up — plumbing or 
preaching, nursing or newspaper work, business or politics 

— you must use words, you must put them together into 
sentences, and bind the sentences into paragraphs. Every- 
body who has ever lived, with the possible exception of 
Robinson Crusoe during a comparatively short period of 
his life, has been obliged to convey his thoughts to some one 
else by means of written or spoken words, sentences, and 
paragraphs. It stands to reason, then, that the one who 
can most clearly and most effectively express himself will, 
other things being equal, be the leader. 

As an illustration : Everyone who has goods to sell has 
to have some means of delivering his goods to his customers. 
The merchant may be the proprietor of a hardware store, a 
grocer, or a butcher ; he must use a delivery wagon. Other 
things being equal, the storekeeper who can deliver his 
goods is going to get ahead of the storekeeper who can't ; 
and the one who delivers his goods in neatly wrapped 



xvin INTRODUCTION 

packages, in a clean and smoothly running delivery car, or 
in a neat wagon with a well-groomed horse drawing it, is 
going to get ahead of the one who sends out his orders done 
up in newspaper, in a ramshackle conveyance. 

During the European War much equipment that would 
have been invaluable to the Russian armies at the front 
was tied up at Vladivostok and Archangel, of no use what- 
ever because there was no way of delivering it. All of you 
have now, perhaps, and certainly will have later on, ideas 
that you will want to give to other people for the world's 
benefit and for your own advantage. If you cannot trans- 
mit these ideas, they will be of no use to the world and of 
practically no use to you. The study of English Composi- 
tion aims to teach you how to think out your ideas clearly, 
and how to present them in such a way that people may 
clearly understand just exactly what it is that you want 
them to grasp. 

Language, like dress, is based on certain conventions. 
Most of these are reasonable, though occasionally we meet 
with some that are not. There is no particular reason, 
for instance, why we should say " sounded'' but may not 
say "drownded." There is no particular reason why, when 
they are dressed up, women should wear hats or men should 
wear stiff collars. But convention has established those 
rules and we have to live up to them. 

Conventions of dress and conventions of language have a 
great many points in common, but there are many points 
of difference too. We cannot always tell just who lays 
down the rules for correct usage in dress, but we do know 
who does in language. The rules of good and correct usage 
in speech and writing are those that have been formulated 
by our best speakers and writers. These writers and 



INTRODUCTION xix 

speakers do not make the rules and write them out, but the 
writers of Grammars, Composition Books, and Rhetorics 
put into words, record, and tabulate rules and suggestions 
based on the use of words and sentences and paragraphs 
of these best speakers and writers. 

Usage in language, though subject to some changes, is 
more constant than is usage in dress. In our language 
today there are many words in common as well as good 
use, " barrage" and " camouflage" for instance, that were 
not in use ten years ago. But whereas the fashion books 
of ten years ago are now hopelessly out of date, the composi- 
tion books of twenty years ago could, in general, serve 
pretty well today. 

What this course in English Composition will try to 
teach you, then, will be how to think clearly, and how to 
express the results of your clear thinking effectively, in 
correct English. 

There is no royal road to success. It is not possible for 
one to become a good and effective speaker or writer with- 
out first putting in a great deal of time and labor in learn- 
ing what is correct and in good form, and in practicing how 
to use it. The soldiers from our training camps could not 
come into our cities and march down the streets in perfect 
formation without first having to go through weeks, nay 
months, of hard grinding drills that had no glory whatever 
connected with them. To know and appreciate what is 
correct and in good form, you must not only study the 
assignments that may be given you in a composition book ; 
you must read as much as you possibly can of authors who 
establish the standards of good English. For practice in 
correct and effective expression, you must not merely do 
the exercises in this book as carefully as you can, you must 



xx INTRODUCTION 

strive to do all your writing and all your talking in the best 
English you can use. 

Sometimes the way will seem very dreary; sometimes 
you will not be able to see the why and the wherefore of 
the tasks you are asked to perform; oftentimes you will 
get discouraged. Keep on working cheerfully ; the end is 
worth your effort. You are striving to make yourself more 
effective, and — what is of infinitely more importance — of 
greater usefulness to the world. 



Look, then, into thine heart, and write. — Longfellow. 



For the achievement of any work regarded as an end, there must 
be a prior exercise of many energies or acquired facilities of a secondary 
order, demanding patience. — Aristotle. 



By desiring what is perfectly good, even when we don't quite know 
what it is, and cannot do what we would, we are part of the divine 
power against evil — widening the skirts of light, and making the 
struggle with darkness narrower. — George Eliot. 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

CHAPTER I 
SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

LESSON I 

Penmanship. It is not necessary, neither is it desirable, 
for every one to write in exactly the same way. But it is 
desirable — and it is possible — for every one to write 
evenly, neatly, and legibly. In practicing penmanship 
exercises, therefore, though it is a good plan sometimes to 
copy models of handwriting, it is better to write in the way 
that is most natural, with the emphasis placed on making 
the writing even, neat, and legible. If everybody had the 
same gait in walking, the crowds of people we see on any 
busy street would look like mechanical toys ; if everybody 
wrote in exactly the same way, handwriting would lack the 
character that it should possess. Everybody should have 
his own distinctive way of walking ; but he should walk 
firmly and evenly, not slouch along or move in irregular 
zigzags from one side of the street to the other. So, too, 
everybody should have his own distinctive way of writing ; 
but he should write evenly, neatly, and legibly, not scrawl 
carelessly over the sheet. 



2 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

The following suggestions, if carried out, will help to 
make you, if not a good penman, at least one who can write 
evenly, neatly, and legibly. 

i. Be sure that you have a good pen and good ink. If 
you are using a pencil, be sure that it is well sharpened. 

2. Hold your pen or pencil firmly in your fingers, but 
do not grasp it so tightly that your muscles are cramped. 

3. Some instructors suggest that you practice writing 
very slowly, forming each letter as carefully as you can. 
This, they claim, will give your hand better exercise than 
it would get if you wrote fast, and will give you better 
control over the muscles of your hand. 

4. Do not slant the letters too much either to the left 
or to the right. As the hand, in traveling over a line, 
moves from left to right, it is a little less tiresome to write, 
inclining the letters slightly to the right. Be careful, 
though, to have the slant even throughout. 

5. Make your letters as far as possible even in size; 
make the spaces between the letters, and those between 
the words, even. 

6. Avoid all unnecessary lines and all flourishes. 

7. Be careful not to wrinkle up your paper ; avoid mak- 
ing blots and smirches. 

8. As a general thing, and always in your classroom 
work, write on only one side of the paper. 

Taking note of the suggestions that have been given, 
copy, in ink, as evenly, neatly, and legibly as you can, the 
following selection. 

In his Proclamation of March 6th, 1799, John Adams, second 
President of The United States, recommended a day of solemn humili- 
ation, fasting, and prayer, in which the people of this country should 
pray, among other things: "That He should smile on our colleges, 



SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 3 

academies, schools, and seminaries of learning, and make them nurs- 
eries of sound science, morals, and religion ; that He would bless all 
magistrates, from the highest to the lowest, give them the true spirit 
of their station, make them a terror to evil doers and a praise to them 
that do well ; that He would preside over the councils of the nation 
at this critical period, enlighten them to make a just discernment of 
the public interest, and save them from mistake, division, and dis- 
cord ; that He would make succeed our preparations for defense and 
bless our armaments by land and by sea ; and that He would put an 
end to the effusion of human blood and the accumulation of human 
misery among the contending nations of the earth, by disposing them 
to justice, to equity, to benevolence, and to peace ; and that He would 
extend the blessings of knowledge, of true liberty, and of pure and 
undefiled religion throughout the world." 

LESSON II 

Themes. General directions. 1. Do your work regu- 
larly; always hand your themes in on time. 

2. Think about your subject before you begin to put 
it on paper; then arrange your thoughts in an outline 
and make your first copy. Be honest , be direct and 
brief, be simple, be specific, be orderly, be reasonable, be 
fair. 

[An outline is really a framework. To make one you should jot 
down on a piece of paper the various phases of the subject you intend 
to take up, and arrange them in logical order. Ordinarily each theme 
should have an introduction, which does what its name suggests — 
introduces us to the subject ; a body, the main part of the theme, 
which tells what was done, or explains the object that is being con- 
sidered ; and the conclusion, in which the writer gracefully takes leave 
of the subject. You can readily see that the body is the important 
part of the theme ; so you should try not to make your introduc- 
tions and your conclusions too long or cumbersome. An outline of 
one of the subjects suggested at the end of the lesson might be as 
follows : 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



A VACATION EXPERIENCE 



Introduction : Going away to spend the week-end with a friend. 
Body : Starting out, detained by a telephone call. 

Miss trolley to station. 
Heavy suit case to carry ; run to station. 
On arriving, find train had left. 
Sit down on suit case, out of breath and discouraged. 
Kind-hearted station agent, seeing distress, comforts 
by saying there will be another train in half an 
hour. 
Conclusion : Sit in station till second train comes ; reach friend's 
home in time for dinner.] 

3. Make your themes complete in themselves; make 
them interesting. 

4. Use only good English. 

5 . When you have finished, test every sentence to see that 
it expresses a complete thought. Test each paragraph to 
see that only closely related ideas have been presented in it. 

[See the first two paragraphs of Chapter XX, which takes up the 
paragraph more in detail.] 

Preparation of themes. 1. Use only regulation paper; 
never tear the sheets. 

2. Write on only one side of the paper. 

3. In your final copy write legibly and neatly; use ink 
always. 

4. Place the title on the first line near the middle. 

5. Leave blank the margin at the left-hand side of the 
page. 

6. Leave no meaningless spaces at the right-hand side 
of the page. 

7. Indent the first line of every paragraph at least half 
an inch within the margin of writing. 



SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 5 

8. Never indicate a new paragraph unless there is a real 
division of the thought. 

9. Fold the paper evenly lengthwise. Indorse it as the 
teacher may direct. 

Choose one of the following as the subject for a theme of 
about one hundred and fifty words. Do not write the theme 
out. But think about it, and be prepared to write it for 
your next assignment. 

1. A vacation experience. 

2. My first day in school. 

3. What I should most like to do. 

4. The most interesting spot in town. 

5. How to play . 

Note that the subject of a theme is not necessarily the 
title. The subject gives an idea of what you are going to 
write about ; the title is the name of your theme. After 
you have written and revised your theme, you can give it 
a title. The title could be worded in the same way as the 
subject, and yet you might want to have it more specific. 
If you wrote on a vacation experience you might tell us 
of an automobile breakdown or of a narrow escape from 
drowning or of missing a train. To give any one of these 
themes the title " A Vacation Experience " would not be 
so good, because it would not be so explicit as perhaps 
such titles as " My Kingdom for a Horse!" " Saved!" 
"Left!" 

In a title all words except articles, conjunctions, and 
prepositions should be capitalized. 

In writing your theme try not only to make it correct ; 
try also so to fill it with your own personality that it will 
live, — not be merely a dead mass of words. Read over 



6 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

the following account of the execution of Louis XVI, from 
The French Revolution, written by Thomas Carlyle (1795- 
1 881). It is more than a group of facts. It is more than 
a mass of words. It is the picture Carlyle saw, with all its 
color, with all its significance. And he makes us see it too. 

King Louis slept sound, till five in the morning, when Clery, as he 
had been ordered, awoke him. Clery dressed his hair; while this 
went forward, Louis took a ring from his watch, and kept trying it 
on his finger ; it was his wedding-ring, which he is now to return to 
the queen as a mute farewell. At half -past six, he took the sacrament ; 
and continued in devotion, and conference with Abbe Edgeworth. 
He will not see his family ; it were too hard to bear. 

At eight, the municipals enter ; the king gives them his will, and 
messages and effects; which they, at first, brutally refuse to take 
charge of : he gives them a roll of gold pieces, a hundred and twenty- 
five louis; these are to be returned to Malesherbes, who had lent 
them. At nine, Santerre says the hour is come. The king begs yet 
to retire for three minutes. At the end of three minutes, Santerre 
again says the hour is come. Stamping on the ground with his right 
foot, Louis answers "Partons, Let us go." How the rolling of those 
drums comes in, through the Temple bastions and bulwarks, on the 
heart of a queenly wife ; soon to be a widow ! He is gone, then, and 
has not seen us ? A queen weeps bitterly ; a king's sister and children. 
Over all these four does death hover ; all shall perish miserably save 
one ; she, as Duchesse dAngouleme, will live, not happily. 

At the Temple gate were some faint cries, perhaps fiom voices of 
pitiful women: "Grace! Grdce!" Through the rest of the streets 
there is silence as of the grave. No man not armed is allowed to be 
there ; the armed, did any even pity, dare not express it, each man 
overawed by all his neighbors. All windows are down, none seen 
looking through them. All shops are shut. No wheel-carriage rolls, 
this morning, in these streets but one only. Eighty thousand armed 
men stand ranked, like armed statues of men ; cannon bristle, can- 
noneers with match burning, but no word or movement ; it is as a 
city enchanted into silence and stone: one carriage with it's escort, 
slowly rumbling, is the only sound. Louis reads, in his book of de- 



SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 7 

votion, the prayers of the dying; clatter of this death-march falls 
sharp on the ear, in the great silence ; but the thought would fain 
struggle heavenward, and forget the earth. 

As the clocks strike ten, behold the Place de la Revolution, once the 
Place de Louis Quinze : the guillotine, mounted near the old pedestal 
where once stood the statue of that Louis ! Far round, all bristles 
with cannons and armed men : spectators crowding in the rear ; 
D 'Orleans Egalite there in cabriolet. Swift messengers, hoquetons, 
speed to the town hall, every three minutes ; near by is the convention 
sitting, vengeful for Lepelletier. Heedless of all, Louis reads his 
prayers of the dying ; not till five minutes yet has he finished ; then 
the carriage opens. What temper is he in ? Ten different witnesses 
will give ten different accounts of it. He is in the collision of all 
tempers ; arrived now at the black maelstrom and descent of death : 
in sorrow, in indignation, in resignation struggling to be resigned. 
"Take care of M. Edgeworth," he straitly charges the lieutenant who 
is sitting with them ; then they two descend. 

The drums are beating; "Taisez-vous, silence!" he cries in a 
terrible voice, d'une voix terrible. He mounts the scaffold, not without 
delay; he is in puce coat, breeches of gray, white stockings. He 
strips off the coat ; stands disclosed in a sleeve-waistcoat of white 
flannel. The executioners approach to bind him ; he spurns, resists ; 
Abbe Edgeworth has to remind him how the Saviour, ia whom men 
trust, submitted to be bound. His hands are tied, his head bare, 
the fatal moment is come. He advances to the edge of the scaffold, 
his face very red, and says : "Frenchmen, I die innocent ; it is from 
the scaffold and near appearing before God that I tell you so. I 
pardon my enemies; I desire that France — " A general on horse- 
back, Santerre or another, prances out, with uplifted hand: " Tam- 
bours ! " The drums drown the voice. "Executioners, do your duty ! " 
The executioners, desperate lest themselves be murdered (for Santerre 
and his armed ranks will strike, if they do not), seize the hapless 
Louis ; six of them desperate, him singly desperate, struggling there ; 
and bind him to their plank. Abbe Edgeworth, stooping, bespeaks 
him : " Son of Saint Louis, ascend to heaven." The ax clanks down ; 
a king's life is shorn away. It is Monday, the 21st of January, 
1793. He was aged thirty-eight years four months and twenty-eight 
days. 



8 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Executioner Samson shows the head : fierce shout of Vive la 
republique rises, and swells ; caps raised on bayonets, hats waving ; 
students of the College of Four Nations take it up, on the far Quais ; 
fling it over Paris. D 'Orleans drives off in his cabriolet; the town 
hall councilors rub their hands, saying, " It is done, it is done." There 
is. dipping of handkerchiefs, of pike-points in the blood. Headsman 
Samson, though he afterward denied it, sells locks of the hair ; frac- 
tions of the puce coat are long after worn in rings. And so, in some 
half -hour it is done; and the multitude has all departed. Pastry- 
cooks, coffee sellers, milkmen sing out their trivial quotidian cries; 
the world wags on, as if this were a common day. In the coffee- 
houses that evening, says Prudhomme, patriot shook hands with 
patriot in a more cordial manner than usual. Not till some days 
after, according to Mercier, did public men see what a grave thing it 
was. 

LESSON III 

Write a theme of about one hundred and fifty words on 
the subject which, in the previous lesson, you chose for 
consideration. 

Symbols that may be used in criticizing themes : 



ag. 


agreement 


form 


form needs improve 


cap. 


use capital letter 




ment 


cf. 


compare 


gr. 


grammar at fault 


ell 


not clear 


int. 


interest lacking 


C. 


coherence 


K. 


awkward 


cond. 


condense 


I.e. 


use small letter 


const. 


construction 


P. 


punctuation 


c.w. 


use a better word 


PL v. 


point of view 


D. 


see dictionary 


R. 


repetition 


def. 


definiteness 


S. 


sentence 


e.d. 


express differently 


A* 


something omitted 


ex p. 


expand 


sine. 


sincerity 




THOMAS CARLYLE — WHISTLER 



SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 



sp. 


spelling 


w. 


weak 


T. 


change of tense of 


X 


any obvious error 




verb 


B 


omit 


tr. 


transpose 


? 


questions a fact 


U. 


unity 


if 


paragraph 



CHAPTER II 
READING ALOUD 

LESSON I 

Reading aloud. As it is possible for any one to write 
evenly, neatly, and legibly, so also it is possible for any one 
to read smoothly, clearly, with understanding, and with 
appreciation. The suggestions given below, if followed, 
will help you to become a better reader. 

i. Try not to read too fast. 

2. Do not be afraid to open your mouth and move your 
lips and tongue. 

3. Read smoothly. If you are riding a bicycle, you 
keep your eye on the road, four or five yards ahead. Thus 
if you see a rough place, you are prepared; you can, if 
necessary, bring your eyes closer to the front wheel, until 
you pass the troublesome part. If you looked only a 
yard ahead, you would be all right so long as the road was 
perfectly smooth. If you came to a stone, you would 
either have to slow up with a jerk, or stop and consider 
how to get around it. When you are reading, keep your 
eye about four or five words ahead of the one you are 
uttering. If you do that, when you come to a difficult 
one, you can let your eyes rest on it, until you know how 
to pronounce it, — that would probably be before you 
spoke it; then move your eyes forward to your regular 
position, four or five words ahead. 

4. On the printed page, you notice, there are spaces 



READING ALOUD n 

between the words ; they are not all run together. So in 
your reading, make slight — very slight — pauses between 
your words ; do not run them together. 

5. When you are interested in a subject, you usually 
do not talk about it in a monotone. So, when you are 
reading aloud, modulate your voice. 

6. Read clearly and distinctly. Give each vowel its 
correct sound. Pronounce each consonant : he \ hit \ Tom, 
not he I it \ om ; he \ is, not hees. 

7. Note marks of punctuation. 

8. Do not strain your voice ; read easily. 

9. See and understand and feel what you are reading; 
then try to make those who are listening to you see, under- 
stand, and feel with you. 

[To the Teacher : — In addition to the suggestions that have 
been given, you may wish to say something about Pitch and some- 
thing about Resonance. It would help, in explaining what is meant 
by resonance, to have the students breathe as nearly as possible 
equally out of their mouth and nose, and try — while so doing — to 
pronounce vowel sounds. 

In explaining a number of the points that have been taken up in 
this lesson, you would find a chart showing the various organs of the 
mouth and throat, the air spaces and the passages between the mouth 
and the nose, very helpful.] 

LESSON II 

Taking note of the suggestions given, read aloud the 
following selection as clearly and distinctly and with as 
much understanding and feeling as you can. It is from 
Les Miserables (pronounced Lay MiserabP), by Victor 
Hugo (1802-1885). 

[The pronunciations of some of the more difficult words are given 
at the end of the selection.] 



12 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



MADELEINE * 



Within two years there had been accomplished at Montreuil sur 
Mer 2 one of those industrial changes which are the great events of 
small communities. 

From time immemorial the special occupation of the inhabitants 
of Montreuil had been the imitation of English jets and German black 
glass trinkets. The business had always been dull in consequence of 
the high price of the raw material, which reacted upon the manufac- 
ture. At the time of Fantine's 3 return to Montreuil, an entire trans- 
formation had been effected in the production of these goods. Towards 
the end of the year 1815, an unknown man had established himself 
in the city, and had conceived the idea of substituting gum-lac for 
resin in the manufacture ; and for bracelets, in particular, he made the 
clasps by simply bending the ends of the metal together instead of 
soldering them. 

This change had worked a revolution. It had reduced the price 
of the raw material enormously, and this had rendered it possible, 
first, to raise the wages of the labourer — a benefit to the country — 
secondly, to improve the quality of the goods — an advantage for the 
consumer — and thirdly, to sell them at a lower price even while 
making three times the profit — a gain for the manufacturer. 

In less than three years the inventor of this process had become 
rich, which was well, and had made all around him rich, which was 
better. He was a stranger in the Department ; nothing was known 
of his birth, and but little of his early history. On his arrival at Mon- 
treuil sur Mer he had the dress, the manners, and the language of a 
labourer. 

It seems that the very day on which he thus obscurely entered the 
city, a great fire had broken out in the town-house. This man rushed 
into the fire, and saved, at the peril of his life, two children, who proved 
to be those of the captain of the gendarmerie ; 4 and in the hurry and 
gratitude of the moment no one thought to ask him for his passport. 
He was known from that time by the name of Father Madeleine. 

The profits of Father Madeleine were so great that by the end of 
the second year he was able to build a large factory, in which there 
were two immense workshops, one for men and the other for women. 
Whoever was needy could go there and be sure of finding work and 



READING ALOUD 13 

wages. Father Madeleine required the men to be willing, the women 
to be of good morals, and all to be honest. 

In 1820, five years after his arrival at Montreuil sur Mer, the 
services that he had rendered to the region were so brilliant, and the 
wish of the whole population was so unanimous, that the king ap- 
pointed him mayor of the city. He refused, but the principal citizens 
came and urged him to accept, and the people in the streets begged him 
to do so ; all insisted so strongly that at last he yielded. Nevertheless 
he remained as simple as at first. 

In his walks he liked to carry a gun, though he seldom used it. 
When he did so, however, his aim was frightfully certain. He never 
killed an inoffensive animal, and never fired at any of the small birds. 
Although he was no longer young, it was reported that he was of pro- 
digious strength. He would offer a helping hand to any one who 
needed it, help up a fallen horse, push at a stalled wheel, or seize by 
the horns a bull that had broken loose. He always had his pockets full 
of money when he went out, and empty when he returned. He did a 
multitude of good deeds as secretly as bad ones are usually done. 

Little by little in the lapse of time all opposition on the ground of 
his previous history had ceased ; respect became complete, unanimous, 
cordial. People came from thirty miles around to consult Monsieur 
Madeleine. He settled differences, he prevented lawsuits, he recon- 
ciled enemies. Everybody, of his own will, chose him for judge. He 
seemed to have the book of the natural law by heart. A contagion 
of veneration had, in the course of six or seven years, step by step, 
spread over the whole country. 

One man alone, in the city and its neighbourhood, held himself 
entirely clear from the contagion, and, whatever Father Madeleine 
did, he remained indifferent, as if a sort of instinct, unchangeable and 
imperturbable, kept him awake and on the watch. Often, when 
Monsieur Madeleine passed along the street, calm, affectionate, fol- 
lowed by the benedictions of all, it happened that a tall man, wearing 
a flat hat and an iron-grey coat, and armed with a stout cane, would 
turn around abruptly behind him, and follow him with his eyes until 
he disappeared. This personage, grave with an almost threatening 
gravity, was one of those who, even in a hurried interview, command 
the attention of the observer. His name was Javert, 5 and he was one 
of the police. 



14 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Javert was like an eye always fixed on Monsieur Madeleine; an 
eye full of suspicion and conjecture. Monsieur Madeleine finally 
noticed it, but seemed to consider it of no consequence. 

One day, however, his strange manner appeared to make an im- 
pression upon Monsieur Madeleine. . The occasion was this. 

Monsieur Madeleine was walking one morning along one of the 
unpaved alleys of Montreuil sur Mer ; he heard a shouting and saw 
a crowd at a little distance. He went to the spot. An old man, 
named Father Fauchelevent, 6 had fallen under his cart, his horse 
being thrown down. The horse had his thighs broken, and could not 
stir. The old man was caught between the wheels. Unluckily he 
had fallen so that the whole weight rested upon his breast. The cart 
was heavily loaded. It had rained the night before, the road was 
soft, the cart was sinking deeper every moment, and pressing more and 
more on the breast of the old carman. Father Fauchelevent was 
uttering doleful groans. They had tried to pull him out, but in vain. 
An unlucky effort, inexpert help, a false push, might crush him. It 
was impossible to extricate him otherwise than by raising the wagon 
from beneath. Javert, who came up at the moment of the accident, 
had sent for a jack. 

Monsieur Madeleine came. The crowd fell back with respect. 

"Help," cried old Fauchelevent. 

Monsieur Madeleine turned towards the bystanders : 

"Has anybody a jack?" 

"They have gone for one," replied a peasant. 

"How soon will it be here?" 

"We sent to the nearest place, but it will take a good quarter of 
an hour at least." 

"We cannot wait a quarter of an hour," said Madeleine. 

"We must!" 

"Don't you see that the wagon is sinking all the while? " 

"It can't be helped." 

"Listen," resumed Madeleine, "there is room enough still under 
the wagon for a man to crawl in, and lift it with his back. In half a 
minute we will have the poor man out. Is there nobody here who has 
strength and courage ? Five louis d'ors 7 for him ! " 

Nobody stirred in the crowd. 

" Ten louis," said Madeleine. 



READING ALOUD 15 

The bystanders dropped their eyes. One of them muttered: 
" He'd have to be devilish stout. And then he would risk getting 
crushed." 

" Come," said Madeleine, " twenty louis." 

The same silence. 

"It is not willingness which they lack," said a voice. 

Monsieur Madeleine turned and saw Javert. He had not noticed 
him when he came. Javert continued: "It is strength. He must 
be a terrible man who can raise a wagon like that on his back." 

Then, looking fixedly at Monsieur Madeleine, he went on, empha- 
sising every word that he uttered: "Monsieur Madeleine, I have 
known but one man capable of doing what you call for." 

Madeleine shuddered. 

Javert added, with an air of indifference, but without taking his 
eyes from Madeleine : "He was a convict." 

"Ah!" said Madeleine. 

"In the galleys at Toulon." 8 

Madeleine became pale. 

Meanwhile the cart was slowly settling down. Father Fauche- 
levent screamed: "I am dying! my ribs are breaking! a jack! 
anything! oh!" 

Madeleine looked around him : 

"Is there nobody, then, who wants to earn twenty louis and save 
this poor old man's life?" 

None of the bystanders moved. Javert resumed : "I have known 
but one man who could take the place of a jack ; that was that con- 
vict." 

Madeleine raised his head, met the falcon eye of Javert still fixed 
upon him, looked at the immovable peasants, and smiled sadly. 
Then, without saying a word, he fell on his knees, and even before 
the crowd had time to utter a cry, he was under the cart. 

There was an awful moment of suspense and of silence. Made- 
leine, lying almost flat under the fearful weight, was twice seen to 
try in vain to bring his elbows and knees nearer together. They 
cried out to him : "Father Madeleine ! come out from there ! " Old 
Fauchelevent himself said: "Monsieur Madeleine! go away! I 
must die, you see that ; leave me ! you will be crushed too." Made- 
leine made no answer. The bystanders held their breath. The 



1 6 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

wheels were still sinking, and it had now become almost impossible 
for Madeleine to extricate himself. 

All at once the enormous mass started, the cart rose slowly, the 
wheels came half out of the ruts. A smothered voice was heard 
crying: " Quick! help!" It was Madeleine, who had just made a 
final effort. They all rushed to the work. The devotion of one man 
had given strength and courage to all. The cart was lifted by twenty 
arms. Old Fauchelevent was safe. 

Madeleine arose. He was very pale, though dripping with sweat. 
His clothes were torn and covered with mud. All wept. The old 
man kissed his knees and called him the good God. He himself wore 
on his face an indescribable expression of joyous and celestial suf- 
fering, and he looked with tranquil eye upon Javert, who was still 
watching him. 

[i. Mad (e) layn. 2. Mo treuy sur Mair. 3. Fa teen. 4. Zha dar- 
m(e) rie (police). 5. Zha vair. 6. Fosh 1 (e) vd. 7. Louis dor. 
8. Tool 6. 

a is pronounced as in father ; an italicized vowel should be given 
the French nasal sound.] 

LESSON III 

Oral composition. Whenever you are called on to re- 
cite, try to speak without hesitating ; but if you do have 
to pause now and then to think of the exact word you want 
to use, do not say er ; it is much better to say nothing. 
Avoid introducing into your recitation too many and's, 
well's, and why's. 

1. Tell the story of the accident that befell Father Fauchelevent. 

2. Tell the story of an accident you may have seen. 

3. Give a character-sketch of Father Madeleine. (Tell how he 
looked, and what he was.) 

4. Give a character-sketch of some prominent man or woman in 
your own city. 

5. Give a short account of the life of Victor Hugo. (You can 
find something about him in an encyclopedia.) 



READING ALOUD 17 

LESSON IV 

Write a theme of about two hundred words on one of 
these subjects. 

LESSON V 

Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. Note 
that the first word in every line of poetry is capitalized. 

"I REMEMBER, I REMEMBER" 

I remember, I remember, 

The house where I was born, 
The little window where the sun 

Came peeping in at morn ; 
He never came a wink too soon, 

Nor brought too long a day, 
But now, I often wish the night 

Had borne my breath away ! 

I remember, I remember, 

The roses, red and white, 
The violets, and the lily-cups, 

Those flowers made of light ! 
The lilacs where the robin built, 

And where my brother set 
The laburnum on his birthday, — 

The tree is living yet ! 

I remember, I remember, 

Where I was used to swing, 
And thought the air must rush as fresh 

To swallows on the wing ; 
My spirit flew in feathers then, 

That is so heavy now, 
And summer pools could hardly cool 

The fever on my brow ! 



18 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

I remember, I remember, 

The fir-trees dark and high ; 
I used to think their slender tops 

Were close against the sky. 
It was a childish ignorance, 

But now 'tis little joy, 
To know I'm farther off from heav'n 

Than when I was a boy. 

Thomas Hood (i 799-1845) 



CHAPTER III 
SIMPLE SENTENCE 

LESSON I 

Why should we begin our study of English composition 
by considering the sentence? The sentence is not the 
simplest form of speech ; but neither is the foot or the 
meter the shortest length that we recognize. The foot 
and the meter are considered units of length ; in the same 
way we may consider the sentence as the unit of speech. 

Simple sentence. A simple sentence is a group of words 
expressing one complete thought. To express this complete 
thought, we must have in the sentence a subject, a word 
or group of words naming the person or thing about which 
an assertion is made ; and a predicate, a word or group of 
words which makes an assertion about the subject. 

i. John | runs. 

2. The captain of the track team | runs. 

3. John I runs a race for his school. 

4. The captain of the track team | runs a race for his school. 

In all these examples we have subjects and predicates. 
The subject or predicate or both may consist of one word 
or of a group of words. But in each sentence one complete 
thought is expressed. 

In the following sentences we have subjects and predi- 
cates ; but in examples 1 and 2, the subject is " under- 

19 



20 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

stood " ; while in examples 3 and 4, if the words are used 
as answers to questions, the predicate is understood. 

1. Run! 2. Run for the school! 

3. John. 4. The captain of the team. 

The full sentences 1 and 2 could read : 

1. (John) or (you) run! 2. (John) or (you) run for the 

school ! 

Sentences 3 and 4 could answer the question " Who 
runs? " 

3. John (runs). 4. The captain of the team (runs). 

In the sentence John hit James, John is the subject, 
and hit James is the predicate. The action of John passes 
over to and affects James. James is the object of the 
verb hit. 

You will notice that throughout this lesson the empha- 
sis has been placed on the word complete. A group of 
words that does not express a complete thought is not a 
sentence. 

Note that the first word in a sentence must always be 
capitalized. 

Punctuation. Note the marks of punctuation used in 
this lesson. 

1. An exclamation mark [!] must be put at the end of 
every exclamatory sentence, whether it be declarative or 
imperative. 

How it rains ! Run for the school ! 

2. A question mark [?] must be put at the end of every 
interrogative sentence. 

Who ran? Are you coming? 



SIMPLE SENTENCE 21 

3. A period [.] must be put at the end of every declarative 
sentence that is not exclamatory. 

John runs. James is coming. 

4. A period must also be put after all abbreviations. 
Mr. Mass. Dr. a.m. 

LESSON II 

Explain why the following are sentences. Which of 
them are simple sentences? 

1. Who shall hang the bell around the cat's neck? 

2. Order is heaven's first law. 

3. Three may keep a secret if two of them are dead. 

4. Break, break, break, 

On thy cold, gray stones, O sea ! 

5. It is never too late to mend. 

Explain fully why the following are not sentences. 

1. To stop the hole after the mischief's done 

2. Sailing on to far Cathay 

3. Kindness nobler ever than revenge 

4. Many a true word spoken in jest 

5. An old head on a young pair of shoulders 

Tell which of the following are sentences. Explain why. 

1 . The holy calm that leads to heavenly musing 

2. Grasp no more than thy hand will hold 

3. Once a knave, always a knave 

4. The tailor ill-dressed ; the shoemaker ill-shod 

5. The more famous the vanquished, the more famous the victor 

Punctuate the following : 

1. Mr Chas L Jones rose at six a m 

2. Does the fish soar to find the ocean 



22 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

3. Dr Brown lives in St Paul Minn 

4. Isn't it raining 

5. Go where glory waits thee 

In the twenty exercises that have been given, pick out 
the subjects, predicates, and objects where there are any. 

LESSON III 

Oral and written composition. Before you could tell 
the story of the accident that befell Father Fauchelevent, 
you had to read over the passage and fix certain points 
in your mind more firmly than they had been fixed by 
your first reading of the account. It is possible that in 
preparing for the recitation or the theme, you jotted down 
on a piece of paper what you especially wished to remem- 
ber. Before you could tell the story of an accident you 
might have seen, you had to call on your memory to present 
before your mind's eye what you saw. These pictures you 
had to arrange in order, and from them you had to select 
the parts you wished to present. It is possible that in 
preparing for this you also jotted down a few notes. When 
you looked up the life of Victor Hugo, you probably found 
it absolutely necessary to take some notes on a piece of 
paper to help you remember what you read. 

In taking notes you should be careful not to put down 
too much. If you do, you are liable to rely on the notes 
and not on your memory. You should write down only 
what is absolutely necessary to give the main facts, and 
the order in which they occur. You must at all times be 
absolutely accurate. 

Taking notes will help to make you appreciate the sig- 
nificance and the value of paragraphs. As you jot down 



SIMPLE SENTENCE 23 

the main points that you find in the paragraphs you read, 
you probably notice that each presents one main thought, 
with a number of subordinate thoughts bearing directly 
on the main thought and contributing to its fuller and 
clearer understanding. In writing your own paragraphs, 
then, bear in mind that each paragraph should present 
one main thought. You may express other thoughts in 
the same paragraph, but all these must bear directly on 
the main thought and have a definite connection with it. 

Write out notes that would help you to speak on, or 
tell: 

1. A fairy story. 

2. A camping experience. 

3. The life of Henry W. Longfellow. 

4. An Indian legend. 

5. A walk through the woods. 

Recite on one of these, speaking for two or three minutes. 

[Does the picture of the dog (facing page 186) offer you any help- 
ful suggestions for the second and fifth subjects ?] 

LESSON IV 

Write a theme of about two hundred words on one of 
these subjects. 

LESSON V 

Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

Profoundly penetrated with this idea, I shall carry it with me to 
my grave as a strong incitement to unceasing vows that Heaven may 
continue to you the choicest tokens of its beneficence; that your 
union and brotherly affection may be perpetual ; that the free Con- 
stitution which is the work of your hands may be sacredly maintained ; 
that its administration in every department may be stamped with 



24 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

wisdom and virtue ; that, in fine, the happiness of the people of these 
States, under the auspices of liberty, may be made complete by so 
careful a preservation and so prudent a use of this blessing, as will 
acquire to them the glory of recommending it to the applause, the af- 
fection, and adoption of every nation which is yet a stranger to it. 

From Washington's "Farewell Address" September 17, i?g6 



CHAPTER IV 
NOUNS AND VERBS 

LESSON I 

In our study of the sentence we found that it is made 
up of a subject and a predicate. The simplest and most 
elementary form of a subject is a noun ; the simplest 
and most elementary form of a predicate is a verb. 

Nouns. A noun is a word used to name something. 
Nouns are divided into two classes. A common noun is 
the name of a class of objects ; a proper noun is the name 
of an individual member of a class. Proper nouns should 
be capitalized. 

COMMON NOUNS PROPER NOUNS 
i. school i. Phillips 

2. town 2. Chicago 

3. church 3. Trinity 

4. country 4. England 

Verbs. A verb is a word used to assert an action or a 
condition. Verbs are divided into two classes. A transi- 
tive verb is one that, in the active voice, requires an object 
before it can express a complete thought. That is, the 
action passes over from the doer of an action to the object. 
An intransitive verb is one that does not take an object. 
That is, the action or condition involves only the subject. 

TRANSITIVE VERB. John hits James. 
INTRANSITIVE VERB. John talks. 

25 



26 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Intransitive verbs are of two kinds. A complete in- 
transitive verb is one which can be used by itself as a com- 
plete predicate ; a linking intransitive verb is one which 
cannot be used by itself as a complete predicate. 

COMPLETE. John rose. James fell. 
LINKING. John is captain of the team. 
James became an officer. 

A transitive verb may be in the active voice or in the 
passive voice. A verb in the active voice indicates that 
the subject is acting ; a verb in the passive voice indicates 
that the subject is being acted upon. 

ACTIVE. Hannibal defeated the Romans. 
PASSIVE. Hannibal was defeated. 

Some intransitive verbs are used in the passive voice 
when accompanied by an adverb that gives them a sort 
of transitive character. 

This bed has not been. slept in. The house has been gone into. 

An auxiliary verb (or, as it is sometimes called, a copula, 
or a linking verb) is one that helps to express the meaning 
of another verb. 

John was talking to James. 
John has decided to run. 

Punctuation. A hyphen [-] is used : 

i. To separate the parts in compound words. 

note-book son-in-law red-hot 

2. To connect divided syllables. When there is not 
enough space at the end of a line to write out an entire 
word, put one or more syllables, with a hyphen, at the 



NOUNS AND VERBS 27 

end of the line, and the remaining syllable or syllables 
at the beginning of the next line. An unnecessary division 
of words should always be avoided. Monosyllables may 
never be divided. 

mil-lion riv-er speak-ing 

NOT str-ength NOT disple-asure 

LESSON II 

In the following sentences pick out the proper and the 
common nouns, and the transitive and the intransitive 
verbs. In the case of the latter tell whether they are 
complete or linking. Tell whether the verbs are in the 
active or in the passive voice. Separate by hyphens the 
syllables in all words of more than one syllable. 

1. I am a part of all that I have met. 

2. Stretch your arm no further than your sleeve will reach. 

3. There is much good sleep in an old story. 

4. He swore to it as positively as the Indian did to the identity 
of the gun, which he said he had known ever since it was a pistol. 

5. The groves were God's first temples. 

6. A little nonsense, now and then, 
Is relished by the best of men. 

7. Act well your part ; there all the honor lies. 

8. He jests at scars who never felt a wound. 

9. History makes some amends for the shortness of life. 

10. The bore is the same, eating dates under the cedars of Lebanon 
or eating baked-beans in Boston. 

11. The true university of these days is a collection of books. 



12. 



The insignificant, the empty j . i usually the loud ; and after 

the manner of { ^"m} { T ) louder because f { ^T } em P tiness - 
13. They give up all sweets of kindness for the sake of peevish- 
ness, petulance, or gloom, and alienate the world by neglect of the 



28 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

common forms of civility and breach of the established laws of con- 
versation. 

14. Haste makes waste, and waste makes want, and want makes 
strife between the goodman and his wife. 

1 5. Hearts may count in heaven as high as heads. 

Pick out the subjects, predicates, and objects in these 
fifteen exercises. 

Make a list of ten compound words. 

LESSON III 

Oral composition. When you stand up before a class 
to recite or to make a speech, you should be so full of 
your subject that you can forget yourself entirely. A 
great fault to be found with most young speakers is that 
they are self-conscious : they think of themselves, — of 
their hands, of their feet, of their clothes, of their voice, 
— rather than of the thing about which they are speaking. 
If those various elements that give trouble could be taken 
care of in some way, could be put out of mind, speaking 
before an audience would be much easier. 

Before you leave your seat, it is a good plan to smooth 
out your clothes, button up your coat, fix your necktie, 
and pat your hair. If you do all that before you rise, 
you will have that much less to worry about when you 
are up. If you are to speak from the front of the room, 
walk up there briskly, or if from your desk, stand up 
quickly. Wherever you are to be, plant yourself firmly 
on both feet, keeping them fairly close together, and stand 
straight. Try not to sway from side to side or backwards 
and forwards. Your hands are pretty sure to bother you : 
you should not put them in your pockets ; and if you let 
them hang by your side, you will feel them growing till 



NOUNS AND VERBS 29 

they seem enormous.. You could remedy this if, on as- 
suming your speaking position, you should clasp them 
behind your back. 

When you were first asked to stand in front of a class 
and make a speech, you were probably so bashful that 
you found it difficult to raise your eyes off the ground, or 
at least to keep them on your audience all the time ; and, 
as you could not see whom you were addressing, you were 
not able to know just how loud you should speak to be 
heard by all. For the first few times you speak, it is 
helpful to pick out a certain person in the back of the 
room and to speak directly to him or her. If you do that, 
your eyes will be off the ground, and you will be sure that 
your voice is loud enough for all to hear you ; it will prob- 
ably, too, be quite uniform in volume. Every now and 
then move your eyes and let them rest on one and another 
of your audience, but move them back soon to the one at 
whom you first looked. After doing this during your first 
few speeches, you will find it easier to look at your entire 
audience without being embarrassed. 

When you listen critically to the speeches of your class- 
mates, you will notice that if a speaker talks along with- 
out modulating his voice — that is, if he talks in a mono- 
tone — you are much less interested in what he has to 
say than you are when he changes his tone and the pitch 
of his voice every now and then, and when he varies his 
speed of talking. You will notice too that what a speaker 
says in the very beginning of his speech, is the thing that 
usually determines whether you will listen to what he has 
to say or go to sleep ; and that what he says at the end 
of his speech is the thing that usually determines whether 
you will remember or forget what he has said. Be care- 



SO THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

ful, then, when you are speaking, to modulate your voice. 
Be careful, too, to make the beginning of your speeches 
so interesting, so suggestive, that your audience will be 
anxious to have you go on ; and the endings so strong, so 
impressive, that they will drive home what you have said, 
and make it stay with your hearers. Do not let your 
voice weaken at the end. 

It is an excellent idea to stand looking at your audience 
for about two seconds before you begin and after you finish 
your speech. 

Learn the poem given at the end of this chapter, Abou 
Ben Adhem; and, taking note of the suggestions that 
have just been given T stand up before the class and 
recite it. 

LESSON IV 

Write a short theme, taking as your subject one of the 
following : 

i. A moving-picture story. 

2. My baby brother {or sister). 

3. A dream. 

4. A trip to . 

5. A midnight adventure. 

[Do the pictures facing pages 30, 44, 104, and 219 offer you any 
suggestions for the fourth subject ?] 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

ABOU BEN ADHEM 

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase !) 
Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace ; 
And saw, within the moonlight in his room, 




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NOUNS AND VERBS 31 

Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom, 

An angel, writing in a book of gold : — 

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 

And to the presence in the room he said, 

"What writest thou?" — The vision raised its head, 

And, with a look made of all sweet accord, 

Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord!" 

"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," 

Replied the angel. Abou spake more low, 

But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then, 

Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night 
It came again with a great wakening light, 
And showed the names whom love of God had blest, 
And lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 

Leigh Hunt (1 784-1859) 



CHAPTER V 
VERBS (Continued) 

LESSON I 

Modes. The action or condition asserted by a verb may 
take place in different manners. The distinctions between 
these we note in the modes or moods. The indicative is 
the mode of simple declaration ; the subjunctive, of doubt- 
ful or conditional assertion ; the imperative, of command. 

To this list we might add the infinitive and the participle, 
though these two forms are not now usually classified as 
modes. The former names the action or condition ; the 
latter partakes of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

INDICATIVE. You are happy now. 

You feU. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. If you were only happy now. 

O that you had not fallen ! 
IMPERATIVE. Be happy now. 

Fall down ! 
INFINITIVE. To be happy now. 

To fall on the ice is dangerous. 
PARTICIPLE. Being happy, you can sing. 

The fallen horse cannot rise. 
[The indicative and the imperative are easily recognized and under- 
stood ; the infinitive and the participle will be more fully discussed 
later in connection with phrases. The subjunctive mode is the one 
that perplexes more than any other ; moreover, it is gradually going 
out of use in English, so no further discussion of it will be taken up 
in this book.] 

32 



VERBS 33 

Tenses. The action or condition asserted by a verb in 
the indicative mode may take place at different times — 
in the present, in the past, or in the future. To indicate 
at what special time the action or condition takes place, 
we change the form of the verb, or add to it an auxiliary 
verb. There are six of these distinctions which we note 
in the tenses. The present tense shows that the action 
or condition is taking place now; the past, that it took 
place some time in the past ; the perfect, that it has just 
been completed ; the past perfect, that it was completed 
some time in the past ; the future, that it will take place 
some time in the future ; the future perfect, that it will 
be completed in the future. 

\ PRESENT. I run. 

PAST. I ran. 

PERFECT. I have run. 

PAST PERFECT. I had run. 

FUTURE. I shall or will run. 

FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have or will have run. 
(Note the auxiliary verbs used with certain tenses.) 

Shall and will. Shall in the first person, and will in 
the second and third persons, denote simple futurity. 
Will in the first person, and shall in the second and third 
persons, denote volition. 

FUTURITY. You will go today, he will go tomorrow, and I shall 
go the day after. 

VOLITION. You shall go today, he shall go tomorrow, and I 
will go the day after. (It is the same as saying, "I order you to go, I 
order him to go, I have determined to go myself.") 

(The principal parts of some troublesome and irregular 
verbs are given in Appendix I.) 



34 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON II 

In the sentences given below, tell all you can about the 
verbs. State whether they are transitive or intransitive 
(if intransitive, whether complete or linking or auxiliary) ; 
whether they are active or passive. Give the tense and 
the mode. 

i. I had rather have a fool to make me merry than experience to 
make me sad. 

2. Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not 
coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and 
nights to the volumes of Addison. 

3. I will be obliged to refuse your request. (What is wrong? 
Why?) 

4. The mind is like a bow : the stronger for being unbent. 

5. The hand that rounded Peter's dome, 
And groined the aisles of Christian Rome, 
Wrought in a sad sincerity. 

Himself from God he could not free ; 
He builded better than he knew ; 
The conscious stone to beauty grew. 

6. Every state will be delivered from its calamities when, by the 
favor of fortune, great power unites with wisdom and justice in one 
person. 

7. A Swedish farmer insisted that with his telescope he could 
bring his old pig, which was a mile off on the hillside, so near that he 
could plainly hear him grunt. 

8. An old man's shadow is better than a young man's sword. 

9. A wonder lasts but nine days, and then the puppy's eyes are 
opened. 

10. The stone that lieth not in your way need not offend you. 

In these exercises pick out the subjects, predicates, and 
objects. 

Tell whether will or shall should be used in the following 
sentences. Explain why. 



VERBS 35 

i. Kings be tyrants from policy when subjects are rebels 

from principle. 

2. The poetry of earth never die. 

3. A pig's tail never make a good arrow. 

4. Though he slay me, yet I trust in Him. 

5. The young lady who fell off the ferry-boat cried out, "I — — 
drown ; nobody save me!" 

LESSON III 

Re-tell orally one of the following selections in good 
English. If you should take the poetical selection, tell 
it in prose. 



THE BUMBLEBEE 

The bumblebee iz a kind ov big fly who goes muttering and sware- 
ing around the lots, during the summer, looking after little boys to 
sting them, and stealing hunny out ov the dandylions and thissells. He 
iz mad all the time about sumthing, and don't seem to kare a kuss 
what people think ov him. A skoolboy will studdy harder enny 
time to find a bumblebee's nest than he will to get hiz lesson in arith- 
metik, and when he haz found it, and got the hunny out ov it, and got 
badly stung into the bargain, he finds thare ain't mutch margin in it. 
Next to poor molassis, bumblebee hunny iz the poorest kind ov sweet- 
meats in market. Bumblebees hav allwuss been in fashion, and prob- 
ably allwuss will be, but whare the fun or profiit lays in them i never 
could cypher out. The proffit don't seem to be in the hunny, nor in 
the bumblebee neither. They bild their nest in the ground, or enny 
whare else they take a noshun to. It ain't afrade to fite a whole 
distrikt skool if they meddle with them. I don't blame the bumble- 
bee, nor enny other fellow, for defending hiz sugar : it iz the fust and 
last Law ov natur, and i hope the law won't never run out. The 
smartest thing about the bumblebee iz their stinger. 

"Josh Billings " (Henry W. Shaw, 1818-1885) 



36 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



FINNIGIN TO FLANNIGAN 

Superintendent wuz Flannigan ; 
Boss av the siction wuz Finnigin ; 
Whiniver the kyars got off en the thrack 
An' muddled up things t' th' divil an' back, 
Finnigin writ it to Flannigan, 
Afther the wrick wuz all on agin', 
That is, this Finnigin 
Repoorted to Flannigan. 

Whin Finnigin furst writ to Flannigan, 
He writed tin pages — did Finnigin. 
An' he tould jist how the smash occurred ; 
Full minny a tajus, blunderin' wurrd 
Did Finnigin write to Flannigan 
Afther the cars had gone on agin. 
That wuz how Finnigin 
Repoorted to Flannigan. 

Now Flannigan knowed more than Finnigin — 
He'd more idjucation — had Flannigan ; 
An' it wore 'm clane an' complately out 
To tell what Finnigin writ about 
In his writin' to Muster Flannigan. 
So he writed back to Finnigin : 
" Don't do sich a sin agin ; 
Make 'em brief, Finnigin!" 

When Finnigin got this from Flannigan, 

He blushed rosy rid — did Finnigin ; 

An' he said : "I'll gamble a whole month's pa-ay 

That it will be minny an' minny a da-ay 

Before Sup'rintindint, that's Flannigan, 

Gits a whack at this very same sin agin. 

From Finnigin to Flannigan 

Repoorts won't be long agin." 



VERBS 37 

Wan da-ay on the siction av Finnigin, 

On the road sup'rintindid by Flannigan, 

A rail give way on a bit av a curve 

An' some kyars went off as they made the swerve. 

" There's nobody hurted," sez Finnigin, 

"But repoorts must be made to Flannigan." 

An' he winked at McGorrigan, 

As married a Finnigin. 

He wuz shantyin' thin, wuz Finnigin, 

As minny a railroader's been agin, 

An' the shmoky ol' lamp wuz burnin' bright 

In Finnigin's shanty all that night — 

Bilin' down his repoort, was Finnigin ! 

An' he writed this here : "Muster Flannigan : 

Off agin, on agin, 

Gone agin. — Finnigin." 

S. W. Gillilan in Life 

LESSON IV 

Rewrite one of these selections in good English. If you 
take the poetical selection, write it in prose. Make your 
theme about two hundred or two hundred and fifty words 
in length. 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this 
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the 
proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a 
great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation, so con- 
ceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great 
battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that 
field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that 
that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we 
should do this. 



38 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we 
cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who 
struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add 
or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we 
say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the 
living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they 
who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for 
us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that 
from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause 
for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we 
here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that 
this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that 
government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not 
perish from the earth. 

Abraham Lincoln (1809- 1865) 



CHAPTER VI 
ADJECTIVES 

LESSON I 

Adjectives. An adjective is a word or group of words 
used to modify a noun. 

i. The fast runner. 3. A captain of the team. 

2. The two runners. 4. An apple which fell from the tree. 

Articles. The articles a, an, and the modify the nouns 
before which they are placed, and so are really adjectives. 
The first two, a and an, usually specify an object without 
particularizing it, and so are called indefinite articles. 
The third one, the, usually does specify a particular object, 
and so is called the definite article. 

Adjectives may be divided into two classes. A descrip- 
tive adjective expresses the kind or the condition of a 
person or thing spoken of. A limiting adjective, without 
expressing any idea of kind or condition, limits' the idea 
conveyed by the noun. 

DESCRIPTIVE. 1. A fast runner. 2. A comfortable house. 
LIMITING. 1. This runner. 2. Which runner? 3. Any run- 
ner. 4. Three runners. 

Adjectives may be common or proper, the divisions 
corresponding to the ones similarly named for nouns. 
Proper adjectives should be capitalized. 

I. The country boy. 2. The American boy. 

39 



40 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Comparison of adjectives. Comparison of adjectives is 
an inflection indicating the degree of the quality repre- 
sented by them. Adjectives may be of three degrees : 
positive, which shows the simple form of the adjective; 
comparative, which shows that an object has more (or less) 
of a quality than another ; superlative, which shows that an 
object has the most (or the least) of a certain quality. 

POSITIVE, i. The good man. 2. The fast horse. 3. The 
beautiful house. 

COMPARATIVE. 1. The better man. 2. The faster horse. 
3. The more beautiful house or less beautiful house. 

SUPERLATIVE. 1. The best man. 2. The fastest horse. 
3. The most beautiful house or least beautiful house. 

The comparative degree (except in the case of irregular 
adjectives) is formed by adding -er to the adjective in the 
positive degree ; and the superlative, by adding -est. 
When, by adding these suffixes, the adjective would be- 
come too long or clumsy, the comparative degree may be 
formed by using the word more (or less) before the adjective 
in the positive degree, and the superlative, by using the 
word most (or least) . 

Do not use both forms of the comparative or superlative 
at the same time. 

NEVER SAY more prettier, or most commonest. 

When two objects are compared, the comparative degree 
should always be used. 

1. Of the two horses, Lord Derby and Boralma, Lord Derby is 
the faster. NOT Lord Derby is the fastest. 

2. You can leave by the morning or the evening boat, but the 
latter is larger and more seaworthy. NOT largest and most seaworthy. 

(For lists of irregular adjectives see Appendix I.) 



ADJECTIVES 41 

LESSON II 

In the following selections pick out all the words and 
all the groups of words that are adjectives. Tell whether 
they are proper or common, descriptive or limiting; tell 
also of what degree they are. 

1. "Have you any loose change this morning ?" 
"No ; money is tight.' ' 

2. Abide with us, the shadows of the evening 
Slant from the golden chambers of the west. 

3. Egad, I think the interpreter is the hardest to be understood of 
the two ! (What is wrong with this sentence ?) 

4. But hark ! a grand mysterious harmony : 

It floods me, like the deep and solemn sound of many waters. 

5. An Englishman and a Frenchman fought a duel in a darkened 

room. The man from j L unwilling to take his opponent's 

life, generously fired up the chimney, — and brought down his 
French 1 
English ) antag0mSt 

6. I talk of dreams, 
Which are the children of an idle brain, 
Begot of nothing but vain phantasy, 
Which is as thin of substance as the air, 

And more inconstant than the wind which woos 
Even now the frozen bosom of the north : 
And, being angered, puffs away from thence, 
Turning his face to the dew-dropping south. 

7. There is an unfortunate disposition in a man to attend much 
more to the faults of his companions, which offend him, than to their 
perfections, which please him. 

8. A man about to be executed, pointing to his companion who was 
swinging, observed to the multitude: "You there see a spectacle; 
directly I shall be hanged, and then you can view a pair of spectacles." 

9. The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 
The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well. 

10. Death is the greatest mystery of life. 



42 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON III 
Reading exercise. 

THE ORIGIN OF THE ROBIN 

An old man had an only son, named Iadilla, who had come to that 
age which is thought to be most proper to make the long and final 
fast which is to secure through life a guardian genius or spirit. The 
father was ambitious that his son should surpass all others in what- 
ever was deemed wisest and greatest among his people. To accom- 
plish his wish, he thought it necessary that the young Iadilla should 
fast a much longer time than any of those renowned for their power or 
wisdom, whose fame he coveted. 

He therefore directed his son to prepare with great ceremony for 
the important event. After he had been several times in the sweating- 
lodge and bath, which were to prepare and purify him for communion 
with his good spirit, he ordered him to lie down upon a clean mat in 
a little lodge expressly provided for him. He enjoined upon him at 
the same time to endure his fast like a man, and promised that at the 
expiration of twelve days he should receive food and the blessing of 
his father. 

The lad carefully observed the command, and lay with his face 
covered, calmly awaiting the approach of the spirit which was to de- 
cide his good or evil fortune for all the days of his life. 

Every morning his father came to the door of the little lodge and 
encouraged him to persevere, dwelling at length on the vast honor and 
renown that must ever attend him, should he accomplish the full 
term of trial allotted to him. 

To these glowing words of promise and glory the boy never replied, 
but he lay without the least sign of discontent or murmuring until 
the ninth day, when he addressed his father as follows : 

"My father, my dreams forbode evil. May I break my fast now, 
and at a more favorable time make a new fast ? " 

The father answered : 

"My son, you know not what you ask. If you get up now, all 
your glory will depart. Wait patiently a little longer. You have but 
three days more, and your term will be completed. You know it is 
for your own good, and I encourage you to persevere. Shall not your 



ADJECTIVES 43 

aged father live to see you a star among the chieftains and the be- 
loved of battle ? " 

The son assented ; and covering himself more closely, that he might 
shut out the light which' prompted him to complain, he lay till the 
eleventh day, when he repeated his request. 

The father addressed Iadilla as he had the day before, and prom- 
ised that he would himself prepare his first meal, and bring it to him 
by the dawn of the morning. 

The son moaned, and the father added : 

"Will you bring shame upon your father when his sun is falling in 
the west?" 

"I will not shame you, my father," replied Iadilla ; and he lay so 
still and motionless that you could only know that he was living by the 
gentle heaving of his breast. 

At the spring of day, the next morning, the father, delighted at 
having gained his end, prepared a repast for his son, and hastened 
to set it before him. On coming to the door of the little lodge, he was 
surprised to hear his son talking to himself. He stooped his ear to 
listen, and, looking through a small opening, he was yet more aston- 
ished when he beheld his son painted with vermilion over all his 
breast, and in the act of finishing his work by laying on the paint as 
far back on his shoulders as he could reach with his hands, saying at 
the same time, to himself : 

"My father has destroyed my fortune as a man. He would not 
listen to my requests. He has urged me beyond my tender strength. 
He will be the loser. I shall be forever happy in my new state, for 
I have been obedient to my parent. He alone will be the sufferer, 
for my guardian spirit is a just one. Though not propitious to me 
in the manner I desired, he has shown me pity in another way — he 
has given me another shape ; and now I must go." 

At this moment the old man broke in, exclaiming : 

"My son ! my son ! I pray you leave me not ! " 

But the young man, with the quickness of a bird, had* flown to the 
top of the lodge and perched himself on the highest pole, having been 
changed into a beautiful robin red-breast. He looked down upon 
his father with pity beaming in his eyes, and addressed him as follows : 

" Regret not, my father, the change you behold. I shall be happier 
in my present state than I could have been as a man. I shall always 



44 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

be the friend of men, and keep near their dwellings. I shall ever be 
happy and contented ; and although I could not gratify your wishes 
as a warrior, it will be my daily aim to make you amends for it as a 
harbinger of peace and joy. I will cheer you by my songs, and strive 
to inspire in others the joy and light someness of heart I feel in my 
present state. This will be some compensation to you for the loss of 
glory you expected. I am now free from the cares and pains of human 
life. My food is spontaneously furnished by the mountains and 
fields, and my pathway of life is in the bright air." 

Then stretching himself on his toes, as if delighted with the gift 
of wings, Iadilla caroled one of his sweetest songs, and flew away into 
a neighboring wood. 

From " The Indian Fairy Book " 

LESSON IV 

One of the important things to consider in planning and 
in writing themes is what is called point of view. Point 
of view is what its name suggests. A house looks different 
inside from what it does outside ; it usually feels different 
and smells different. When an accident takes place, the 
person who is hurt feels different from the individuals in 
the crowd which gathers around him. And if in the crowd 
there is a dear friend of the one who is injured, his feelings 
are certainly different from those of the messenger-boy 
who just happened by. Before you start your theme, 
you must determine definitely what shall be your point 
of view, and in the development of your theme, you must 
stick consistently to the point of view you have chosen. 
Do not always choose your own point of view ; occasionally 
put yourself in somebody else's place, and try to see things 
as he or she would see them. 

Look at the picture of the cloister at Monreale opposite. 
The impressions of an old monk who had spent his entire 
Hfe there would be different from those of a tourist who 



ADJECTIVES 45 

just came there for the day. Moreover, the impressions 
of no three tourists would be alike. An architect might 
notice how beautiful were the columns , and how they 
differed from each other; a tired business man might 
think how beautifully peaceful the place was ; and a high 
school student might think what a wonderful place it 
would be to lay down a board-track for winter work of the 
athletic team ! 

Choose a definite point of view before you start to write ; 
and having chosen it, be sure that you understand it and 
sympathize with it, and stick to it consistently. 

Write a short theme, taking as your subject one of the 
following : 

i. Sunday in the country. 

From the standpoint (point of view) of a country boy or 
girl, or of a city boy or girl. 

2. An incident in a modern battle. 

From the standpoint of a soldier on the winning side, one 
on the defeated side, a soldier who was wounded, a Red Cross 
nurse, a Red Cross dog, an old lady in a bombarded town, a 
cannon. 

3. An interesting character. 

From the standpoint of his best friend, or of his worst enemy. 
(Do the pictures facing pages 8, 63, and 186 offer you any 
suggestions ?) 

4. The story of the flag. 

From the standpoint of the flag itself — the flag on a sky- 
scraper, the flag on a coasting-schooner — or from the stand- 
point of the one who made the flag. 

5. What the pledge of allegiance to the flag means to me. 



46 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

SUNDAY IN THE COUNTRY 

I AM always very well pleased with a country Sunday, and think if 
keeping holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it would 
be the best method that could have been thought of for the polishing 
and civilizing of mankind. It is certain, the country people would 
soon degenerate into a kind of savages and barbarians, were there not 
such frequent returns of a stated time, in which the whole village 
meet together with their best faces, and in their cleanliest habits, to 
converse with one another upon indifferent subjects, hear their 
duties explained to them, and join together in adoration of the Su- 
preme Being. Sunday clears away the rust of the whole week, not 
only as it refreshes in their minds the notions of religion, but as it 
puts both the sexes upon appearing in their most agreeable forms, and 
exerting all such qualities as are apt to give them a figure in the eye 
of the village. A country fellow distinguishes himself as much in 
the church-yard as a citizen does upon the 'Change, the whole parish 
politics being generally discussed in that place either after sermon or 
before the bell rings. 

Joseph Addison (167 2-1 7 19) 



CHAPTER VII 
ADVERBS 

LESSON I 

Adverbs. An adverb is a word or group of words used 
to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

i. The captain ran swiftly. 

2. The captain ran with great speed. 

3. The captain ran when the pistol was fired. 

4. The unusually fast runner ran a race. 

5. The captain ran very swiftly. 

(In the first three sentences the adverbs modify the verb ran; in 
the fourth, the adjective /as/ / and in the fifth, the adverb swiftly.) 

Comparison of adverbs. The comparison of adverbs re- 
sembles in most respects the comparison of adjectives. 
Some adverbs (chiefly monosyllables) form the compara- 
tive and superlative by adding -er and -est to the positive 
degree. 

He ran faster. He ran fastest. 

Those ending in -ly usually form the comparative and 
superlative by having the words more and most (or less 
and least) placed before the adverb in the positive degree. 

He ran more rapidly. He ran most rapidly. 

He ran less rapidly. He ran least rapidly. 

Adjective or adverb? The question sometimes arises 
whether to use an adjective or an adverb after such verbs 

47 



48 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

as look, taste, arrive, grow, dawn, etc. When the word 
is thought of as applying to the subject, an adjective 
should be used ; when the word is thought of as applying 
to the verb, an adverb should be used. In the sentence 
John arrived safe, the thought is directed towards John's 
condition on his arrival. In the sentence John arrived 
safely, the thought is directed towards the manner of his 
arrival. 

Good and well. The word good is an adjective or a 
noun. 

He is a good runner. The good die young. 

The word well is an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. 

The well man (the man who is not sick). He ran well. The well 
pity the sick. 

Good is never an adverb ; the adverbial form is well. 

He ran well. NOT He ran good. 

(For a list of irregular adverbs see Appendix I.) 

Punctuation. Double quotation marks, or quotation 
marks, as they are commonly called [" "], are used to 
inclose all direct quotations. Indirect quotations should 
not be inclosed in quotation marks. 

DIRECT QUOTATION. He asked, "What was that?" 
INDIRECT QUOTATION. He asked what that was. 

A quotation within a quotation should be inclosed in 
single quotation marks [ l '] ; a quotation within a quota- 
tion within a quotation in double quotation marks, and 
so on. 

i. John said, "James said, 'Yes.' " 

2. John said, "James said, ' Charles said, "Yes."' " 



ADVERBS 49 

Observe the following rules in regard to quotations. 

i . Words introducing a quotation are separated from it by 
a comma, if the quotation is a short one ; but by a colon, if it 
is a long one, or one that contains more than one sentence. 

The little boy suddenly exclaimed: " Mother, this book tells 
about the angry waves of the ocean. Why does the ocean get angry ? " 
The mother replied, "Because it is crossed so often." 

2. The first word in a quotation should begin with a 
capital letter. 

He said, "The day will soon be here." 

3. If a sentence in a quotation is broken by such expres- 
sions as he said, he exclaimed, etc., the quotation marks 
should be placed after the word immediately preceding 
the expression, and before the continuation of the quota- 
tion. The first word in the continuation of the quota- 
tion, however, should not begin with a capital unless it is 
a word that should always be capitalized. Notice that 
the inserted expressions are separated from the rest of 
the sentence by punctuation marks. The inserted ex- 
pressions are not always separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas. Sometimes question marks or ex- 
clamation marks or semicolons must be used. 

"Is he coming today?" she asked, "or tomorrow?" 
"Go !" he said, "and bring him home." 

"If he comes today, we shall be glad to see him," she said; "and 
if he comes tomorrow, we shall be glad to see him." 

(Never use two marks of punctuation, such as a question 
mark and a comma, or an exclamation mark and a comma, 
together.) 

"Go !" he said, NOT " Go! ", he said. 

E 



50 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

4. If a single quotation extends over several paragraphs, 
quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of 
each paragraph, but at the end of only the last one. 

5. If what is being written is in the form of a dialogue, 
or if a number of speakers are quoted, a new paragraph 
should be used for each speech. 

"Come on," said Jane. 

"I can't/' said Ruth. 

"Why?" 

" I've dropped my books in the mud." 

"Too bad! let me help you pick them up." 

LESSON II 

Look over the examples given below, and tell what 
words or groups of words are adverbs. What do they 
modify ? 

1 . He travels safe and not unpleasantly who is guarded by poverty 
and guided by love. (What comment can you make on the third 
word, safe?) 

2. The gold mine that was lately discovered in Bally curry turns 
out to be a lead one. (What is wrong with this sentence?) 

3. No thoroughly occupied man was ever yet miserable. 

4. The tooth often bites the tongue, and yet they keep together. 

5. But covet earnestly the best gifts : and yet show I unto you a 
more excellent way. 

6. The old lady liked to read the dictionary, but thought it changed 
the subject rather often. 

7. A man should never be ashamed to own he has been in the 
wrong ; which is saying, in other words, that he is wiser today than he 
was yesterday. 

8. One ear heard it ; and at the other, out it went. 

9. "Very good, but rather too pointed," as the fish said when he 
swallowed the baited hook. 

10. In solitude, — where we are least alone. 



ADVERBS 51 

In the following passages put quotation marks where 
they should be placed. 

1. Darwin once said when speaking of poetry: If I had my life 
to live over, I would make a rule to read some poetry and listen to 
some music at least once every week. 

2. The peculiarly refreshing thing, says Brandes, about the aver- 
age mortal is his inability to understand even the simplest thought. 

3. Cato the elder, when someone was praising a man for his fool- 
hardy bravery, said that there was an essential difference between a 
really brave man and one who had merely a contempt for life. 

4. The Professor turned on her, saying : You are a beautiful 
young lady — you have been brought up in ease — you have done 
what you would — you have not said to yourself, I must know this 
exactly ; I must understand this exactly ; I must do this exactly. In 
sum, you have not been called upon to be anything but a charming 
young lady, whom it is an impoliteness to find fault with. 

5. And everybody praised the Duke, 
Who this great fight did win. 
But what good came of it at last ? 
Quoth little Peterkin. 

Why, that I cannot tell, said he, 
But 'twas a famous victory. 

LESSON III 

Oral and written composition. The study of English 
composition, both oral and written, should help you not 
only to have a more critical sense of literary values and a 
greater appreciation of what is good in literature, but also 
to become more efficient in your everyday life. No one 
should fill his entire waking time thinking and speaking 
and writing only of his business, — or of his sports. But 
every one has to spend a great many hours every day talk- 
ing and writing about, as well as doing, practical things. 
The young man or the young woman who would attain 



52 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

success in business or in a profession must know how to 
present his or her ideas in such a way that the person who 
is listening to or reading what he has to say may compre- 
hend clearly and completely what it is intended that he 
should. This holds true whether one is explaining how a 
machine works, or is tracing the movements of a client, 
or is trying to sell " Star Brand Canned Goods. " 

i. Explain the working of a pencil sharpener. 

2. Tell how to make fudge. 

3. What do you have to do to prepare a garden for the winter? 

4. Explain how to light a fire by rubbing sticks together. 

5. How do you make a dress ? 

6. How do you do a certain card trick? 

7. Explain how to rescue a drowning person. 

8. Direct a stranger from the railroad station to your school 
building, or to the hotel, or to some public building in your town. 

9. How would you go about it to secure information about : 
a turbine engine ; Robert Louis Stevenson ; the opera Thais; Abbey's 
pictures of the Holy Grail? 

10. Explain to your teacher why you have not been able to pre- 
pare your lesson. 

LESSON IV 

Write a short theme on any one of these subjects. If 
you wish, write it in the form of a letter. 

[Full directions about letter-writing are given in Chapter XXX, 
Lesson L] 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

The bishop's palace at Digne was next door to the hospital. The 
palace was a spacious and beautiful edifice ; the hospital was a low, 
narrow, two-story building. Three days after the bishop's advent he 



ADVERBS S3 

visited the hospital ; when the visit was ended, he invited the director 
to come to the palace. 

"Sir/' he said to the director, "how many patients have you?" 

" Twenty-six, my Lord." 

"I noticed that the beds are very much crowded." 

"Yes, and even when the sun does shine, the garden is very small 
for the convalescents," continued the director. Then he added : 
"What can we do, my Lord? We must be resigned." 

This conversation took place in the dining room. The bishop 
was silent a few moments ; then he turned suddenly towards the 
director. 

"Sir," he said, "how many beds do you think this hall alone would 
contain?" 

"The dining room of my Lord ! " exclaimed the director. 

"Yes," mused the bishop, "it will hold twenty beds. Listen, there 
is a mistake here. There are twenty-six of you in a few small rooms ; 
there are only three of us, and space for sixty. There is a mistake, I 
tell you. You have my house, and I shall have yours." 

The next day the twenty-six poor invalids were installed in the 
bishop's palace, and the bishop was in the hospital. 

Victor Hugo, " Les Miser ables " 



CHAPTER VIII 
COMPOUND SENTENCE, CONJUNCTIONS 

LESSON I 

Compound sentence. A compound sentence is one made 
up of two or more coordinate clauses, each one of which 
could be used as a simple sentence. These clauses may be 
connected by coordinate conjunctions ; if, however, no co- 
ordinate conjunctions are used, the clauses must be sepa- 
rated by semicolons. The thoughts expressed in the two 
or more clauses should be closely related ; otherwise, v the 
compound sentence would lack unity. 

John was not a member of the track team, | but he ran a race for 
his school. 

(The last part of the sentence — he ran a race for his school — plus 
the conjunction — but — may be used as a simple sentence.) 

Conjunctions. A conjunction is a connecting word; a 
word, moreover, which shows the relation between the 
words or groups of words it connects. The conjunctions 
and, but, for, either . . . or, neither . . . nor , are coordinate 
conjunctions. They have no adverbial force. If any of 
them were to be placed before a simple sentence, it would 
continue to be a simple sentence. A subordinate conjunc- 
tion is one like if, since, though, etc., which have a distinct 
adverbial force. If a subordinate conjunction were placed 

54 



COMPOUND SENTENCE, CONJUNCTIONS 55 

before a simple sentence, it would no longer express a 
complete thought. 

COORDINATE. And Peter went out and wept bitterly. 

But I had not seen it. 

SUBORDINATE. Since Peter went out and wept bitterly. 

// I had not seen it. 

It is very difficult sometimes to understand how a group 
of words like " But I had not seen it " is a complete sen- 
tence. It depends on something that has gone before 
almost as much as the group of words " If I had not seen 
it." Even the sentence "I had not seen it " presumes a 
previous sentence in which the antecedent of it is given. 
It may simplify the difficulty if you consider that the 
whole question is really one of degree of completeness of 
thought expressed. It is because the degree of complete- 
ness is not absolute, that but, and, etc., are used more 
frequently in compound sentences, as connectives be- 
tween coordinate clauses, than as the first words of simple 
sentences. 

There are words, which, though appearing to be coordi- 
nate conjunctions, are really adverbial in force. They 
may be called " connecting adverbs." Without being 
added to any particular word, they modify the sense of 
the whole statement. A clause that contains a coordinate 
conjunction used adverbially, that is, a connecting adverb, 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a 
semicolon. 

He did not make proper preparation ; accordingly, he failed in his 
undertaking. 

The following lists of conjunctions should be noted and 
used as often as possible in conversation and in writing. 



5 6 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

COORDINATE, and, but, for, either ... or, neither . . . nor. 

SUBORDINATE, after, as, because, before, except, if, in as 
much as, in order that, lest, since, than, though, unless, until, when, 
while. 

CONNECTING ADVERBS, accordingly, as well as, besides, 
consequently, else, hence, however, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, 
otherwise, perhaps, so, still, therefore, thus, yet. 

Compound subjects and compound predicates. Some- 
times we wish to say that two or more subjects do some- 
thing, or that a subject does two or more things, or that 
two or more subjects do two or more things. 

i. John and James | run a race. 

2. John | runs a race and wins a point. 

3. John and James | run a race and win points. 

In these sentences John is a simple subject, and runs a 
race is a simple predicate. John and James is a compound 
subject, and runs a race and wins a point, and run a race 
and win points are compound predicates. We must learn 
to distinguish between a compound sentence and a simple 
sentence containing a compound predicate. The way to 
do this is to cut off the last verb and the words that go 
with it, and see if it may be used as a simple sentence 
while standing alone. If it may, the sentence is a com- 
pound sentence ; if it may not, it is a simple sentence 
with a compound predicate. 

1. John runs a race | and wins a point. 

[The last verb and the words that go with it, and wins a point, 
may not be used as a simple sentence while standing alone. Conse- 
quently the sentence is a simple sentence with a compound predicate.] 

2. John runs a race, | but he does not win. 

[The last verb and the words that go with it, but he does not win, 
may be used as a simple sentence. Consequently the sentence is a 
compound sentence.] 



COMPOUND SENTENCE, CONJUNCTIONS 57 

If the words in a compound subject are connected by 
or, nor, either, neither, etc., the verb usually agrees in 
person and number with the nearest subject. 

1. Neither he nor she is in the room. 

2. One or two are in the room. 

If the construction is awkward, it should be rearranged. 

1. You or I am going, 
could be rearranged to read : 

One of us is going. 

2. Two people, or perhaps only one is in the room, 
could be rearranged to read : 

Two people are in the room or, perhaps, there is only one. 

LESSON II 

Show why the following sentences are compound 
sentences. 

1. They are lax in their gaiters, but they are laxer in their gait. 

2. Two dogs strive for a bone, and a third runs away with it. 

3. Preparation is half the battle, and nothing is lost by being on 
one's guard. 

4. You write with ease to show your breeding, 
But easy writing's cursed hard reading. 

5. Be not forgetful to entertain strangers, for thereby some have 
entertained angels unawares. 

Show why the following sentences are not compound 
sentences. 

1. I do not give you to posterity as a pattern to imitate, but as an 
example to deter. 

2. Great minds are easy in prosperity and are quiet in adversity. 



58 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

3. Where money and counsel are wanting, it is better not to make 
war. 

4. Martin, if dirt was trumps, what hands you would hold ! 

5. Perfect valor consists in doing without witnesses all we should 
be capable of doing before the whole world. 

In the following sentences tell which are compound and 
which are not. Pick out the compound subjects and the 
compound predicates. 

1. Promising is not giving, but serves to content fools. 

2. There were gentlemen and seamen in the navy of Charles II ; 
but the seamen were not gentlemen, and the gentlemen were not 
seamen. 

3. Some lie before the churchyard stone, 
And some before the speaker. 

4. Silk and velvet put out the kitchen fire. 

5. Another man's horse and your own whip can do a great deal. 

6. A gosling flew over the Rhine and came back a goose. 

7. We may endeavor to persuade our fellow citizens, but it is un- 
lawful to force them even to that that is best for them. 

8. The Spanish fleet thou canst not see 
Because it is not yet in sight. 

9. It is excellent to have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous to 
use it like a giant. 

10. Gossips fall out and tell each other truths. 

Pick out the coordinate and subordinate conjunctions, 
and the connecting adverbs in these exercises. 

LESSON III 
Reading exercise. 

The selection given below is a burlesque by William Makepeace 
Thackeray (1811-1863). He, like numerous other novelists, took 
pleasure in poking fun at brother authors and their work. In this 
selection he is parodying the American Indian whom James Fenimore 
Cooper (1 789-1851) painted so gorgeously and so gloriously in his 



COMPOUND SENTENCE, CONJUNCTIONS 59 

Leathers tocking Tales (The Deer slayer, The Last of the Mohicans, 
The Pathfinder, The Pioneers, and The Prairie). Thackeray's Rebecca 
and Rowena, a burlesque of Ivanhoe, is perhaps his best known work 
of this kind. 

Bret Harte (1839-1902) has also written some very clever things 
in which he develops the theme of some popular novels in a most 
ridiculous way. 

THE STARS AND STRIPES 
By the Author of "The Last of the Mulligans," " Pilot," etc. 

The King of France was walking on the terraces of Versailles ; the 
fairest, not only of Queens, but of women, hung fondly on the Royal 
arm; while the children of France were indulging in their infantile 
hilarity in the alleys of the magnificent garden, and playing at 
leap-frog with their uncle, the Count of Provence ; gaudy courtiers, 
emblazoned with orders, glittered in the groves, and murmured friv- 
olous talk in the ears of high-bred beauty. 

"Marie, my beloved," said the ruler of France, taking out his 
watch, "'tis time that the Minister of America should be here." 

"Your Majesty should know the time," replied Marie Antoinette, 
archly, and in an Austrian accent ; "is not my Royal Louis the first 
watchmaker in his empire?" 

The King cast a pleased glance at his repeater, and kissed with 
courtly grace the fair hand of her who had made him the compliment. 
"My Lord Bishop of Autun," said he to Monsieur de Talleyrand, who 
followed the royal pair, "I pray you look through the gardens, and 
tell his Excellency Doctor Franklin that the King waits." The 
Bishop ran off, with more than youthful agility, to seek the United 
States Minister. "These Republicans," he added, confidentially, 
and with something of a supercilious look, "are but rude courtiers, 
me thinks." 

"Nay," interposed the lovely Antoinette, "rude courtiers, Sire, 
they may be ; but the world boasts not of more accomplished gentle- 
men. I have seen no grandee of Versailles that has the noble bearing 
of this American envoy and his suite. They have the refinement of 
the Old World, with all the simple elegance of the New. Though 
they have perfect dignity of manner, they have an engaging modesty 



60 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

which I have never seen equalled by the best of the proud English 
nobles with whom they wage war. I am told they speak their very 
language with a grace which the haughty Islanders who oppress them 
never attained. They are independent, yet never insolent ; elegant, 
yet always respectful; and brave, but not in the least boastful. " 

"What! savages and all, Marie?" exclaimed Louis, laughing, 
and chucking the lovely Queen playfully under the royal chin. "But 
here comes Doctor Franklin, and your friend the Cacique with him." 
In fact, as the monarch spoke, the Minister of the United States made 
his appearance, followed by a gigantic warrior in the garb of his native 
woods. 

Knowing his place as Minister of a sovereign state (yielding even 
then in dignity to none, as it surpasses all now in dignity, in valor, 
in honesty, in strength, and civilization), the Doctor nodded to the 
Queen of France, but kept his hat on as he faced the French monarch, 
and did not cease whittling the cane he carried in his hand. 

"I was waiting for you, sir," the King said, peevishly, in spite of 
the alarmed pressure which the Queen gave his royal arm. 

"The business of the Republic, Sire, must take precedence even of 
your Majesty's wishes," replied Dr. Franklin. "When I was a poor 
printer's boy and ran errands, no lad could be more punctual than poor 
Ben Franklin ; but all other things must yield to the service of the 
United States of North America. I have done. What would you, 
Sire?" and the intrepid republican eyed the monarch with a serene 
and easy dignity, which made the descendant of St. Louis feel ill at 
ease. 

"I wished to — to say farewell to Tatua before his departure/' 
said Louis XVI., looking rather awkward. "Approach, Tatua.' ' 
And the gigantic Indian strode up, and stood undaunted before the 
first magistrate of the French nation; again the feeble monarch 
quailed before the terrible simplicity of the glance of the denizen of 
the primeval forests. 

The redoubted chief of the Nose-ring Indians was decorated in his 
war-paint, and in his top-knot was a peacock's feather, which had been 
given him out of the head-dress of the beautiful Princess of Lamballe. 
His nose, from which hung the ornament from which his ferocious 
tribe took its designation, was painted a light blue, a circle of green 
and orange was drawn round each eye, while serpentine stripes of 



COMPOUND SENTENCE, CONJUNCTIONS 61 

black, white, and vermilion alternately were smeared on his forehead, 
and descended over his cheek-bones to his chin. His manly chest 
was similarly tattooed and painted, and round his brawny neck and 
arms hung innumerable bracelets and necklaces of human teeth, ex- 
tracted (one only from each skull) from the jaws of those who had 
fallen by the terrible tomahawk at his girdle. His moccasins, and 
his blanket, which was draped on his arm and fell in picturesque folds 
to his feet, were fringed with tufts of hair — the black, the gray, the 
auburn, the golden ringlet of beauty, the red lock from the forehead 
of the Scottish or the Northern soldier, the snowy tress of extreme old 
age, the flaxen down of infancy — all were there, dreadful reminis- 
cences of the chief's triumphs in war. The warrior leaned on his 
enormous rifle, and faced the King. 

"And it was with that carabine that you shot Wolfe in '57?" said 
Louis, eyeing the warrior and his weapon. " 'Tis a clumsy lock, and 
me thinks I could mend it," he added mentally. 

"The chief of the French pale-faces speaks truth," Tatua said. 
"Tatua was a boy when he went first on the war-path with Mont- 
calm." 

"And shot a Wolfe at the first fire ! " said the King. 

"The English are braves, though their faces are white," replied 
the Indian. "Tatua shot the raging Wolfe of the English; but the 
other wolves caused the foxes to go to earth." A smile played round 
Dr. Franklin's lips, as he whittled his cane with more vigor than ever. 

"I believe, your Excellency, Tatua has done good service elsewhere 
than at Quebec," the King said, appealing to the American Envoy : 
"at Bunker's Hill, at Brandywine, at York Island? Now that La- 
fayette and my brave Frenchmen are among you, your Excellency 
need have no fear but that the war will finish quickly — yes, yes, it 
will finish quickly. They will teach you discipline, and the way to 
conquer." 

"King Louis of France," said the Envoy, clapping his hat down 
over his head, and putting his arms a-kimbo, "we have learned that 
from the British, to whom we are superior in every thing : and I'd 
have your Majesty to know that in the art of whipping the world we 
have no need of any French lessons. If your reglars jine General 
Washington, 'tis to larn from him how Britishers are licked ; for I'm 
blest if yu know the way yet." 



62 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Tatua said, "Ugh," and gave a rattle with the butt of his carabine, 
which made the timid monarch start ; the eyes of the lovely Antoi- 
nette flashed fire, but it played round the head of the dauntless Amer- 
ican Envoy harmless as the lightning which he knew how to conjure 
away. 

The King fumbled in his pocket, and pulled out a Cross of the 
Order of the Bath. "Your Excellency wears no honor," the monarch 
said; "but Tatua, who is not a subject, only an ally, of the United 
States, may. Noble Tatua, I appoint you Knight Companion of 
my noble Order of the Bath. Wear this cross upon your breast in 
memory of Louis of France" ; and the King held out the decoration 
to the Chief. 

Up to that moment the Chief's countenance had been impassible. 
No look either of admiration or dislike had appeared upon that grim 
and war-painted visage. But now, as Louis spoke, Tatua's face 
assumed a glance of ineffable scorn, as, bending his head, he took the 
bauble. 

"I will give it to one of my squaws," he said. "The pappooses in 
my lodge will play with it. Come, Medecine, Tatua will go and drink 
fire-water" ; and, shouldering his carabine, he turned his broad back 
without ceremony upon the monarch and his train, and disappeared 
down one of the walks of the garden. Franklin found him when his 
own interview with the French Chief Magistrate was over; being 
attracted to the spot where the Chief was, by the crack of his well- 
known rifle. He was laughing in his quiet way. He had shot the 
Colonel of the Swiss Guards through his cockade. 

Three days afterwards, as the gallant frigate, The Repudiator, 
was sailing out of Brest Harbor, the gigantic form of an Indian might 
be seen standing on the binnacle in conversation with Commodore 
Bowie, the commander of the noble ship. It was Tatua, the Chief 
of the Nose-rings. 

Pick out, in the first paragraph, five words or groups of 
words that are adjectives; and in the fourth paragraph, 
five that are adverbs. 



COMPOUND SENTENCE, CONJUNCTIONS 63 

LESSON IV 

In a previous chapter you were told to be careful about 
choosing your point of view before you started to compose 
and to write your theme. There is another point of view 
you must be particular about: the point of view of the 
one who is to listen to what you have to say, or to read 
what you have to write. You must think of that quite 
as much — perhaps .more — than you do of your own ; 
and you must vary what you say or write according to 
the point of view of the person whom you wish to reach. 
A story that seems funny to you, might fall flat if told 
to your grandmother ; a burlesque of some story or some 
poem might amuse your room-mate, but might offend your 
teacher. 

Choose a definite point of view before you start to speak 
or to write, but be sure that it is a point of view that your 
audience can appreciate and understand. 

Write a short theme, taking as your subject one of the 
following : 

1. A funny story. 

Write it for the benefit of your mother ; your friend ; the 
conductor on the street-car. 

2. A burlesque of some story. 

Write it for your younger brother or sister; your teacher; 
your minister. 

3. With the Night Watch. (See picture facing page 261.) 

Write it for the benefit of one who is interested in adven- 
ture ; for one who is interested in costumes. 

4. Napoleon on the Bellerophon. 

Write it (from the standpoint of one of the officers who is 
watching him) in the form of a letter, to an Englishman ; to a 
Frenchman. 

5. When I was most scared. 



64 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, and memorizing exercise. 

THE CHAMBERED NAUTILUS 

This is the ship of pearl, which, poets feign, 

Sails the unshadowed main, — 

The venturous bark that flings 
On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings 
In gulfs enchanted, where the siren sings, 

And coral reefs lie bare, 
Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair. 

Its webs of living gauze no more unfurl ; 

Wrecked is the ship of pearl ! 

And every chambered cell, 
Where its dim dreaming life was wont to dwell, 
As the frail tenant shaped his growing shell, 

Before thee lies revealed, — 
Its irised ceiling rent, its sunless crypt unsealed ! 

Year after year beheld the silent toil 

That spread his lustrous coil ; 

Still, as the spiral grew, 
He left the past year's dwelling for the new, 
Stole with soft step its shining archway through, 

Built up its idle door, 
Stretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more. 

Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, 

Child of the wandering sea, 

Cast from her lap forlorn ! 
From thy dead lips a clearer note is born 
Than ever Triton blew from wreathed horn ! 

While on mine ear it rings, 
Through the deep caves of thought I hear a voice that sings : - 

Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 
As the swift seasons roll ! 
Leave thy low-vaulted past ! 



COMPOUND SENTENCE, CONJUNCTIONS 65 

Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 

Till thou at length art free, 
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea ! 

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1 809-1 894) 



CHAPTER IX 
PRONOUNS 

LESSON I 

E. N. Westcott's David Harum gives a very interesting, 
and in some places very humorous, character sketch of a 
shrewd New York State farmer, who was never beaten 
in a horse-trade. One day David told his friend John, 
when the latter asked him if the people at Homeville 
dressed for dinner, that as a usual thing when the folks 
there dressed in the morning, they let that suit serve for 
all day. Homeville was perhaps fortunate in its simplicity ; 
but if a native of that little hamlet went to live in some 
other town where people were more punctilious, he would 
occasionally have to resign his simple ways for those which, 
though not so easy and comfortable, were more correct. 

As a general thing, in English, a noun has only two or 
three simple forms ; so that a beginner can easily decline 
one — by adding - J s he can form the possessive, and by 
adding -s he can form the plural. The declension of most 
nouns is as simple as the dress of Homeville. But pro- 
nouns are different. Pronouns are about the only words 
in English that have a somewhat elaborate classification 
and inflection ; and it is over pronouns, more perhaps than 
over anything else, that most beginners trip. The follow- 
ing lessons will take up a rather detailed study of pro- 
nouns, to help you to know them correctly and to appre- 
ciate the distinctions between their various forms and uses. 

66 



PRONOUNS 67 

Pronouns. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. 

John is captain of the track-team ; he is a good runner. {He is 
used in place of John.) 

The word for which a pronoun stands is called the ante- 
cedent of the pronoun. 

Pronouns may be divided into various classes : Personal, 
Relative, Interrogative, Demonstrative, Indefinite. 

Personal pronouns. Note that the nominative singular 
of the first person (I) is always capitalized. 

Singular 

Nominative I you he she it 

Possessive or 

Genitive (my) mine (your) yours his (her) hers its 

Objective or 

Accusative me you him her it 

Plural 

Nominative we you they 

Possessive (our) ours (your) yours (their) theirs 

Accusative us you them 

The forms contained in parentheses are really adjectives, 
but they are called pronouns because they are used in 
place of nouns. 

Helen's book, her book, hers. 

Whenever a noun accompanies the pronoun, the adjective 
form should be used; otherwise the regular pronoun form 
should be used. 

It is my book. It is mine. 



68 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

[To the Teacher : — The Joint Committee on Grammatical No- 
menclature recommends that only two case forms be used in the 
inflection of pronouns, the nominative and the accusative-dative. 
The committee recommends further that the forms given in this 
book under the possessive or genitive case be considered as possessive 
adjectives and possessive pronouns.] 

The ending -self or -selves may be added to certain of 
the forms to add emphasis, or to show that the pronoun 
is used reflexively ; i.e. as affecting itself {myself ', yourself, 
himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves). 

EMPHATIC. I myself am going. It is they themselves. 
REFLEXIVE. I cut myself. She hurt herself. 

Do not use the emphatic or reflexive forms unless you 
wish to emphasize the pronoun, or to show that the subject 
acts on itself. 

Three boys and / went out walking. NOT Three boys and myself 
went out walking. 

I will walk with you. NOT I will walk with yourself. 

The verb to be never takes an object. 

It is /. NOT It is me. It was she. NOT It was her. 

The object of a preposition is always in the accusative 

case. 

Give it to me. 

Between you and me. Between you and them. 
In Him we live and move and have our being. 
I don't know whom it belongs to. 

Punctuation. The apostrophe ['] is used for three pur- 
poses: i. To indicate, with s, the possessive or genitive 
case, in both singular and plural. 

John's, men's. 






PRONOUNS 69 

a. When a word ends in -s (in the singular or plural), 
though it is permissible sometimes to use only the apos- 
trophe, it is better to use an apostrophe and s. 

Dickens's, States's rather than Dickens', States'. 

b. In compound words, 's is added to the last part, 
son-in-law's, note-book's. 

c. When two names are used to show joint ownership, 
's is added to the last one. 

Clark and Smith's office. 

d. When nouns are used in apposition, 's is added to the 
last one. 

John the Baptist's prayer. 

2. To indicate the omission of a letter or letters from 
words. 

don't (do not) ; I'll (I shall) ; o'clock (of the clock). 

3. To form with 5 the plural of letters, figures, etc. 
i's, 2's, P's, Q's. 

The apostrophe is not used with the personal pronouns 
to indicate possession. 

its NOT it's. yours NOT your's. 

LESSON II 

1. History repeats itself. (Is itself used intensively or reflex- 
ively ?) 

2. \ \ whom Jove would destroy, he first deprives of wisdom. 
(Which form should you use ? Why ?) 



7<D THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

3. Drink to me only with thine eyes, 
And I will pledge with mine. 

What is the case of me ? Why ? What is the case of / ? Why? 
What part of speech is mine ? What case is it ? 

4. Twelve people and myself had an unlucky voyage. (What is 
wrong with this sentence ?) 

5. A young man met a rival who was somewhat advanced in years, 
and wishing to annoy him, inquired how old he was. "I cannot 
exactly tell," replied the other, "but I can inform you that an ass is 
older at twenty than a man is at sixty." 

(Pick out the pronouns, tell what case they are in, and tell also 
what are their antecedents.) 

6. My kingdom for a horse ! (What part of speech is my ?) 

7. He himself will bear the burden. (What is the case of himself? 
Is it used intensively or reflexively?) 

8. "How will you have your hair cut?" asked the barber of the 
Senator. 

"Cut it in silence, if that is possible," was the reply. (What 
are the antecedents of the pronouns ?) 

9. It is a part of good breeding that a man should be polite even 
to himself. (What is the case of himself? Why?) 

10. "Why, Jones, your office is as hot as an oven ! " 
"So it ought to be. I make my bread here." 

(What is the case of each of the pronouns ? Why ?) 

Punctuate the following : 

1. Heavens never deaf except when mans heart is dumb. 

f Williams the Conqueror 1 , ^ , . Al 

2. < TTT .„. , ~ > sword was stronger than his oath. 
I William the Conquerors J 

(Which form is correct ?) 

3. Always dot your is and cross your /s. 

4. Hes like a swine ; hell never do good while he lives. 

5. An honest mans word is as good as the kings. 

f Nicolay and Hays 1 T ., , T . ■ , . ,, ,. 

6. i' . , • , XT r Life of Lincoln is worth reading. 
I Nicolays and Hays J 

(Which form is correct?) 

7. When the nights darkest, dawns nearest. 

8. Tis not the mouse but the hole that does the injury. 






PRONOUNS 71 

9. The < _. / . ^ r . > donkey is more famous than the captains 
I Dukes of York J 

charger. (Which form is correct?) 

10. One mans meat is another mans poison. 

LESSON III 

If you should try to tell in prose what Longfellow said 
in " The Day Is Done " (see Lesson V), you would have 
to follow the same general order that he has followed. 
The subject of the poem is, " How I feel and what I want 
done when sadness comes o'er me." He takes up these 
points : 

The time, the mood, and the atmosphere of the day 

How he feels 

A description of this emotion 

What he wants done 

What he does not want done 

Repeats what he wants done and explains why 

What the result will be 

Taking up the same points and following the same order, 
give short talks on one or more of the subjects given below. 
Remember what has been said about point of view : your 
own, and that of your audience. 

1. How I feel after hearing some beautiful music. 

2. How I feel when I am too sleepy to get up in the morning. 

3. How I felt when I didn't pay my car-fare. 

4. How I felt when I was angry. 

5. How I felt when I was reproved. 

6. How I feel after a good dinner. 

7. How I feel when I have made a good recitation. 

8. How I feel when our team wins. 

9. How I felt when I heard of the death of . 

10. How I feel (or felt) when . 



72 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON IV 

Write a short theme on one of these subjects. If you 
wish, put it in the form of a letter. If you do write it in 
the form of a letter, don't forget to put your address and 
the date in the upper right-hand corner. A line or two 

below, on the left side, put the salutation, " Dear : " 

and a line below that, the body of your letter. In writing 
this, follow the same rules you would follow in writing a 
theme. When you have finished, add, on the line below, 
" Yours very sincerely," or something similar ; on the line 
below that, sign your name. 

[For fuller directions about letter-writing see Chapter XXX, Les- 
son I.] 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

THE DAY IS DONE 

The day is done, and the darkness 

Falls from the wings of Night, 
As a feather is wafted downward 

From an eagle in his flight. 

I see the lights of the village 

Gleam through the rain and the mist, 

And a feeling of sadness comes o'er me 
That my soul cannot resist : 

A feeling of sadness and longing, 

That is not akin to pain, 
And resembles sorrow only 

As the mist resembles the rain. 

Come, read to me some poem, 

Some simple and heartfelt lay, 
That shall soothe this restless feeling, 

And banish the thoughts of day. 



PRONOUNS 73 

Not from the grand old masters, 

Not from the bards sublime, 
Whose distant footsteps echo 

Through the corridors of Time. 

For, like strains of martial music, 

Their mighty thoughts suggest 
Life's endless toil and endeavor ; 

And to-night I long for rest. 

Read from some humbler poet, 

Whose songs gushed from his heart, 

As showers from the clouds of summer, 
Or tears from the eyelids start ; 

Who, through long days of labor, 

And nights devoid of ease, 
Still heard in his soul the music 

Of wonderful melodies. 

Such songs have power to quiet 

The restless pulse of care, 
And come like the benediction 

That follows after prayer. 

Then read from the treasured volume 

The poem of thy choice, 
And lend to the rhyme of the poet 

The beauty of thy voice. 

And the night shall be filled with music, 

And the cares that infest the day, 
Shall fold their tents, like the Arabs, 

And as silently steal away. 

Henry W. Longfellow (1807-1882) 



CHAPTER X 

PRONOUNS (Continued) 

LESSON I 

Relative pronouns. (Pronouns which connect.) 

Norn. who which that what 

Pos. or Gen. whose whose whose 

Ace. or Obj. whom which that what 

Who is used in speaking of persons ; which, of animals 
and things ; and that, of persons, animals, and things. 

i. The man who came from Florida is my uncle. 

2. The race which he ran was won by his rival. 

3. The God that made the world dwelleth not in mansions made 
by hands. 

4. Water that is stagnant is unwholesome. 

The relative what includes its antecedent. 

I have read the book that is on the table. Or 
I have read what is on the table. 

The relative should usually come as close as possible to 
its antecedent. 

1. The hat of a man whose name was John. NOT A man's hat 
whose name was John. 

2. A man's horse, whose harness was broken. NOT The horse 
of a man whose harness was broken. 

74 



PRONOUNS 75 

A relative must agree with its antecedent in number, 
but its case depends on its construction in its own clause. 

i. I saw John (accusative), who (nominative) also saw me. (Be- 
cause who is the subject of saw.) 

2. He attacked Mr. Brown (accusative), whom (accusative) I 
saw in the shoe-store. (Because whom is the object of / saw.) 

Interrogative pronouns. (Pronouns which ask a ques- 
tion.) 

Nom. who which what 

Pos. whose whose 

Ace. whom which what 

Who is used in speaking of persons. 
Who is here ? Whom did you see ? 

Which is used in speaking of persons or things when an 
idea of selection is involved. 

Which of the men (of the two or three whom I know) do you mean ? 
Which of the books (of the many on my desk) did you take ? 

What is used in speaking of things when an idea of quality 
is involved. 

What (what sort of thing) came ? 

Be very careful to put the interrogative pronoun you 
use in the right case. 

i. I saw John (accusative) ; whom (accusative NOT who, nomi- 
native) did you see ? (Because whom is the object of see.) 

2. I saw John (accusative) ; who (nominative) saw me ? (Because 
who is the subject of saw.) 



76 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON II 

Supply the proper relative pronouns in the exercises given 
below, explaining fully why you select the ones you do. 

i. Aye, call it holy ground, 
The soil where first they trod. 

They left unstained there they found, 

Freedom to worship God. 

2. He knoweth not that he ought to know, is a brute 

beast among men ; he knoweth no more than he hath need of, 

is a man among brute beasts ; and he knoweth all — — may be 

known, is a God amongst men. 

3. God helps them help themselves. 

4. You have tied a knot with your tongue you cannot undo 

with your teeth. 

5. He keeps out of harm's way will gather goodly riches. 

6. He was a man 

stole the livery of the court of heaven 

To serve the Devil in. 

7. He sleepeth in a harvest is a son causeth trouble. 

8. There was a people governed by grave magistrates it had 

selected, and equal laws it had framed. 

9. The world is a comedy to those think, a tragedy to those 

feel. 

10. The great man is he does not lose his child's heart. 

Supply the proper interrogative pronouns in the exer- 
cises given below, explaining fully why you select the 
ones you do. 

1. matters it if the soldier have a sword of dazzling finish, 

of the keenest edge, and finest temper, — if he has never learned the 
art of fence? 

2. o'er the herd would wish to reign 

Fantastic, fickle, fierce, and vain ! 
Thou many-headed monster-thing 
Oh would wish to be thy king ? 






PRONOUNS 77 

3. — — manner of man is this ! 

4. will you take ? 

The path which brings you to the river, 
Or that which leads you 'round the lake ? 

5. can they see in the longest kingly line in Europe, save that 

it runs back to a successful soldier ? 

In the following exercises explain what different mean- 
ings are conveyed by the use of the different interrogative 
pronouns. 

r who ] 
1. < which > took the machine down the hill? 
I what J 

{whom] 
which \ do you take him to be ? 
what J 

3. j . . , [ book did you ask me to read? 

rwho -I 

4. i which [ is at the door? 
^what J 



5. J . \ can fail with such a leader? 



In the following exercises tell which pronouns are rela- 
tive and which interrogative. 

1. Who so blind as he who will not see ? 

2. Friend after friend departs ; 
Who hath not lost a friend ! 
There is no union here of hearts 
That finds not here an end. 

3. What is just and right, is the law of laws. 

4. Who overcomes by force, hath overcome but half his foes. 

5. He that would know what shall be, must consider what hath 
been. 



78 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON III 
Reading exercise. 

THE RAVEN 

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, — 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, 
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. 
"'Tis some visitor," I muttered, " tapping at my chamber door; 
Only this, and nothing more." 

Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December, 
And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. 
Eagerly I wished the morrow ; vainly I had sought to borrow 
From my books surcease of sorrow, — sorrow for the lost Lenore, — 
For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore, — 
Nameless here for evermore. 

And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain, 
Thrilled me, — rilled me with fantastic terrors never felt before ; 
So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating, 
"'Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door, — 
Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door. 
This it is, and nothing more." 

Presently my soul grew stronger : hesitating then no longer, 
"Sir," said I, "or Madam, truly your forgiveness I implore : 
But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping, 
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door, 
That I scarce was sure I heard you." Here I opened wide the door. 
Darkness there, and nothing more. 

Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there, wondering, fearing, 
Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before. 
But the silence was unbroken, and the stillness gave no token, 
And the only word there spoken was the whispered word, "Lenore !" 
This I whispered, and an echo murmured back the word, "Lenore!" 
Merely this, and nothing more. 






PRONOUNS 79 

Back into the chamber turning, all my soul within me burning, 
Soon again I heard a tapping, something louder than before. 
" Surely," said I, "surely that is something at my window-lattice: 
Let me see, then, what thereat is, and this mystery explore, — 
Let my heart be still a moment, and this mysteryexplore : 
'Tis the wind, and nothing more." 

Open here I flung the shutter, when, with many a flirt and flutter, 
In there stepped a stately Raven of the saintly days of yore. 
Not the least obeisance made he, — not a minute stopped or stayed he, 
But, with mien of lord or lady, perched above my chamber door, — 
Perched upon a bust of Pallas just above my chamber door, — 
Perched, and sat, and nothing more. 

Then this ebon bird beguiling my sad fancy into smiling, 
By the grave and stern decorum of the countenance it wore, 
"Though thy crest be shorn and shaven, thou," I said, "art sure no 

craven ; 
Ghastly, grim, and ancient Raven, wandering from the Nightly shore, 
Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night's Plutonian shore?" 
Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore!" 

Much I marvelled this ungainly fowl to hear discourse so plainly, 
Though its answer little meaning, little relevancy bore ; 
For we cannot help agreeing that no living human being 
Ever yet was blessed with seeing bird above his chamber door, 
Bird or beast upon the sculptured bust above his chamber door, 
With such name as "Nevermore !" 

But the Raven, sitting lonely on the placid bust, spoke only 
That one word, as if his soul in that one word he did outpour. 
Nothing further then he uttered, — not a feather then he fluttered, — 
Till I scarcely more than muttered, "Other friends have flown before, — 
On the morrow he will leave me, as my Hopes have flown before." 
Then the bird said, "Nevermore ! " 

Startled at the stillness broken by reply so aptly spoken, 
"Doubtless," said I, "what it utters is its only stock and store, 
Caught from some unhappy master whom unmerciful Disaster 



80 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Followed fast and followed faster, till his song one burden bore, 
Till the dirges of his Hope that melancholy burden bore, — 
Of ■ Never — nevermore ! ' " 

But the Raven still beguiling all my sad soul into smiling, 
Straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in front of bird and bust and door, 
Then, upon the velvet sinking, I betook myself to linking 
Fancy unto fancy, thinking what this ominous bird of yore — 
What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, and ominous bird of yore 
Meant in croaking " Nevermore." 

This I sat engaged in guessing, but no syllable expressing 
To the fowl whose fiery eyes now burned into my bosom's core : 
This and more I sat divining, with my head at ease reclining 
On the cushion's velvet lining that the lamplight gloated o'er, 
But whose velvet violet lining, with the lamplight gloating o'er, 
She shall press, ah, nevermore ! 

Then, methought, the air grew denser, perfumed from an unseen censer 
Swung by Seraphim whose footfalls tinkled on the tufted floor. 
"Wretch!" I cried, "thy God hath lent thee — by these angels he 

hath sent thee 
Respite — respite and nepenthe from thy memories of Lenore ! 
Quaff, oh quaff this kind nepenthe, and forget the lost Lenore!" 
Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." 

"Prophet ! " cried I, "thing of evil ! — prophet still, if bird or devil ! — 
Whether Tempter sent, or whether tempest tossed thee here ashore, 
Desolate yet all undaunted, on this desert land enchanted, — 
On this home by Horror haunted, — tell me truly, I implore, — 
Is there — is there balm in Gilead ? — tell me, — tell me, I implore ! " 
Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore ! " 

"Prophet !" said I, "thing of evil ! — prophet still, if bird or devil ! 
By that heaven that bends above us, — by that God we both adore, 
Tell this soul with sorrow laden, if, within the distant Aidenn, 
It shall clasp a sainted maiden whom the angels name Lenore, — 
Clasp a rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name Lenore." 
Quoth the Raven, "Nevermore." 



PRONOUNS 8 1 

"Be that word our sign of parting, bird or fiend !" I shrieked, upstart- 
ing. 
"Get thee back into the tempest and the Night's Plutonian shore ! 
Leave no black plume as a token of that lie thy soul hath spoken ! 
Leave my loneliness unbroken ! — quit the bust above my door ! 
Take thy beak from out my heart, and take thy form from off my 
door!" 
Quoth the Raven, " Nevermore. " 

And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting 
On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber door ; 
And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, 
And the lamplight o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor ; 
And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor 
Shall be lifted — nevermore ! 

Edgar Allan Poe (1809- 1849) 

LESSON IV 

Exercise in written composition. Translate into good 
English a passage of about four or five hundred words, 
from some ancient or modern language you are studying. 

(The pictures facing pages 104 and 219 may offer suggestions.) 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

SONG OF SAUL BEFORE HIS LAST BATTLE 

Warriors and Chiefs ! should the shaft or the sword 
Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord, 
Heed not the corse, though a King's, in your path : 
Bury your steel in the bosoms of Gath ! 

Thou who art bearing my buckler and bow, 
Should the soldiers of Saul look away from the foe, 
Stretch me that moment in blood at thy feet ! 
Mine be the doom which they dared not to meet. 

G 



82 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Farewell to others, but never we part, 
Heir to my Royalty — Son of my heart ! 
Bright is the diadem, boundless the sway, 
Or kingly the death, which awaits us to-day ! 

Lord Byron (i 788-1824) 



CHAPTER XI 

PRONOUNS (Continued) 

LESSON I 

Demonstrative pronouns. (Pronouns which point out.) 

Singular this that 

Plural these those 

This and these are used of things near at hand ; that 
and those of things farther away in point of time or distance. 
There are other distinctions that may be noted; but for 
the present, only the ones given need be considered. 

i. This house in which I am living is an old one. (The speaker 
is either inside the house or standing very near it.) 

2. These books on my desk were given to me by my uncle. (The 
speaker is either sitting at the desk or standing very near it.) 

3. That house in which I am living is an old one. (The speaker 
is at some distance from the house he is speaking about.) 

4. Those books on my desk were given to me by my uncle. 
(The speaker is at some distance from the books about which he is 
speaking.) 

You must be careful never to use this and that with 
plural nouns, and these and those with singular nouns. 

1. This sort of apples. NOT These sort of apples. (The demon- 
strative pronoun points out the word sort, which is singular.) 

2. These kinds of paper. (The demonstrative pronoun points 
out the word kinds, which is plural.) 

83 



84 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Indefinite pronouns. Such are : each, either, neither, 
some, any, few, all, both, one, none, other, such, another, 
everyone, anyone, etc. 

You must be careful always to use a singular verb with 
a singular indefinite pronoun, and a plural verb with a 
plural indefinite pronoun. 

i. Each speaks a line. NOT Each speak a line. 

2. Either is correct. NOT Either are correct. 

3. Both go to town. 

Formation of the plural. Most nouns form the plural 
by adding s to the singular. 

field, fields ; lamp, lamps. 

Nouns in the following classes, however, form the plural 
by adding -es to the singular. 

1. Nouns ending in a sibilant (ch, s, sh, x, z) add es. 

church, churches; hiss, hisses; rush, rushes; fox, foxes; buzz, 
buzzes. 

2. Nouns ending in -0 preceded by a consonant usually 
add es. 

hero, heroes ; tomato, tomatoes. 

Exceptions : banjo, canto, casino, dynamo, memento, piano, solo, 
stiletto. 

3. Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant, change 
the y to i and add es. 

fly, flies ; spy, spies. 

4. The following nouns change their final -/ or -fe to v 
and add es : calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, shelf, thief, 
wife, wolf. 

knife, knives ; wolf, wolves. 



PRONOUNS 85 

Compound words usually form their plural by putting 
the noun that is modified by the rest of the compound in 
the plural. This is because the noun is usually the im- 
portant word. 

son-in-law, sons-in-law; note-book, note-books. 

When there is no noun in the compound, or no word that 
stands out as more important than any of the others, the 
last word is put in the plural. 

forget-me-not, forget-me-nots; serving-man, serving-men. 

Note the following plurals : 

Alumnus, alumni; crisis, crises; memorandum, memoranda; 
phenomenon, phenomena ; dozen, dozen ; ox, oxen ; child, children ; 
man, men ; mouse, mice ; goose, geese ; fish, fish. 

LESSON II 

Supply the proper demonstrative pronouns in the exer- 
cises given below : 

1. is the month, and the happy morn, 

Wherein the Son of Heaven's eternal King, 
Of wedded maid and virgin mother born, 
Our great redemption from above did bring ; 
For so the holy sages once did sing, 

That He our deadly forfeit should release, 

And with His Father work us a perpetual peace. 

2. Who noble ends by noble means obtains, 
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, 
man is great indeed. 

3. orbed maiden with white fire laden 

Whom mortals call the moon. 

4. way, way, come and hear, 

You that hold pleasures dear ; 

Fill your ears with our sweet sound, 



86 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Whilst we melt the frozen ground ; 

way come, make haste, O fair ! 

Let your clear eyes gild the air ; 
Come and bless us with your sight, 
way, way, seek delight ! 

5. illustrious men, who like torches have consumed them- 
selves in order to enlighten others, have often lived unrewarded, and 
died unlamented. 

6. Count day lost whose low descending sun 

Sees from thy hand no deed of kindness done. 

7. For just experience tells in every soil, 

That who think must govern that toil. 

8. above all : to thine own self be true, 

And it must follow as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

9. Give me now wisdom and knowledge that I may go out and come 

in before < , > people ; for who can judge < . > thy people that 

is so great ! 

(Which form should be used? Look at the verbs carefully.) 

10. I like the view from < > hill. 

I that J 

(What is the difference?) 

Pick out the indefinite pronouns in the following exer- 
cises : 

1. No one thoroughly occupied was ever yet very miserable. 

I hfivp 1 

2. Among men some < > their virtues concealed by wealth, 

I has J 

and some their vices by poverty. (Which form should you use ?) 

3. Few, few, shall part where many meet! 
The snow shall be their winding sheet, 
And every turf beneath their feet 
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

4. One hates to see men do important things in a hurry. 

5. He who helps everybody, helps nobody. (What number is 
everybody ? nobody ?) 



PRONOUNS 87 

6. One can't hinder the wind from blowing. 

7. Some had rather guess at much than take pains to learn a little. 
(What number is some ?) 

8. I wish I was as sure of anything as Macaulay is of everything. 
(What number is everything ? anything ?) 

9. " Honesty is the best policy, " said an Englishman. 

"I know it," replied the Scotchman, "I have tried both." 
10. The half is better than none. 

Supply the correct form of the plural in the exercises 
given below. Explain why. 

1. Everything was at (six) and (seven). j 

2. A gross is twelve (dozen). 

3. Old man Moses 
He sells (posy). 

4. There were a number of old (lady) of both (sex). (What is 
wrong with this sentence ?) 

5. The (church) were built of brick or stone, but the (church- 
spire) were invariably of wood. 

6. The (spy) hid in the (bush) for six (hour). 

7.. (Finger) were made before (knife) and (fork). 

8. If you go camping, be sure to take with you some (potato) 
and some cans of (tomato) . 

9. (Fox) have (hole) and (ox) have (stall), 
(Man) live in (shanty) or marble (hall). 

10. Sweet are the (use) of adversity, 

Which like the (toad) , ugly and venomous, 

Wear yet (a) precious (jewel) in (his) (head) ; 

And (this) our (life) exempt from public haunt, 

Find (tongue) in (tree), (book) in the running (brook), 

(Sermon) in (stone), and good in everything. 

LESSON III 

Oral and written composition. In the themes you have 
been asked to write so far, and in the speeches you have 
been asked to make, you have found that though in some 



88 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

cases you could draw on your own knowledge or experience 
for the material you presented, in others you had to go 
for your information to some one who knew about the 
subject, or to some book or books which could tell you 
what you wanted to know. 

Whenever you are assigned a subject to write on or to 
speak on, sit down quietly for ten or fifteen minutes, or 
possibly longer, and try to recollect all the information 
about the subject you may have stored up in your mind. 
As points after points occur to you, it may be helpful to 
jot them down on a piece of paper. Try to rely on your- 
self as much as possible, — on your memory and on what 
you can get through observation. When you have ex- 
hausted these two methods of collecting knowledge, you 
can ask some one who knows to tell you things you do 
not know, and you can consult books which contain the 
information you desire. 

Select one of the following subjects, and, relying, only 
on what you already know about it, prepare a two or three 
minute speech. 

i. How to play . 



2. The city I live in. 

3. How to drive an automobile. 

4. Park. 

5. How to make a bed. 

6. Wireless telegraphy. 

7. How to knit a sweater. 

8. A funny story. 

9. How to take care of (some pet). 

(Look at the picture facing page 186.) 

10. (Some subject you are particularly interested in.) 



PRONOUNS 89 

LESSON IV 

Write a short theme on one of these subjects, relying 
only on what you already know about it. If you wish, 
put it in the form of a letter. 

[For full directions about letter-writing see Chapter XXX, Lesson 
L] 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

One of the pleasantest things in the world is taking a walk ; but I 
like to go by myself. I can enjoy society in a room ; but out of doors, 
nature is company enough for me. I am then never less alone than 
when alone. 

"The fields his study, nature was his book." 

I cannot see the wit of walking and talking at the same time. 
When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country. I 
go out of town to. forget the town and all that is in it. I like solitude, 
when I give myself up to it, for the sake of solitude ; nor do I ask for 

" a, friend in my retreat, 
Whom I may whisper solitude is sweet." 

The soul of a walk is liberty, perfect liberty, to think, feel, do just 
as one pleases. We take a walk chiefly to be free of all impediments 
and of all inconveniences ; to leave ourselves behind, much more to 
get rid of others. It is because I want a little breathing-space, that 
I absent myself from the town for a while, without feeling at a loss the 
moment I am left by myself. 

William Hazlitt (17 78-1 830) 

[Note that if a verse (line) of poetry is inserted, it must begin a 
new line. If several verses are inserted, each must have a line to 
itself; they must not be run together as if they were prose. If a 
single verse takes up more than one line, do not put anything else on 
the half -line. 1 



CHAPTER XII 
CAPITALS 

LESSON I 

Capitals. Capitals should be used for 

I. The first letter of the first word in 

i. A sentence. 

Now is the time. 

2. A line of poetry. 

It is an ancient mariner, 
And he stoppeth one of three. 

3. A direct quotation. 

Arthur said, "Man's word is God in man." 

4. The topics of an outline. 

Capitals should be used for 
I. The first letter of the first word in 
1. A sentence. 

II. The pronoun J and the interjection 0. 

(Some writers distinguish between O and oh; the form O, however, 
may be used for all purposes.) 

O for a kindling touch from that pure flame ! 

III. The first letter of 

1. Names and titles of persons. 

President TFilson, Dr. Clark. 
90 



CAPITALS 91 

2. Names of localities. 
Denver, Prospect Z7ill. 

3. Names of the Deity. 

Thou who art Eternal Goodness ! 

4. Names of sects and parties. 
Protestants, Catholics, .Republicans, Democrats. 

5. Names of historical events and documents. 
The Thirty Fears' War, The British IFhite Paper. 

6. Proper adjectives and adjectives used as names. 
A German soldier, The French. 

IV. The first letter of 

1. The days of the week and the months of the year. 

Tuesday, March. 

2. Festivals and holidays. 
Christmas, New Fear's Day. 

V. The first letter in every word in a title except articles, 
prepositions, and conjunctions. 

The Scarlet Letter, Travels with a Donkey. 

Correct the following exercises, putting capitals where 
they belong. Explain why. 

1. Now tomlinson gave up the ghost, 

in his house in berkeley square ; 
And a spirit stood by his bed-side 
and gripped him by the hair. 

2. John was thought to be very stupid, he was sent to the mill 
by dog river one day, when the miller said, "some people say you are 



92 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

a fool, John ; now tell me what you know and what you don't 
know." 

"Well," replied John, "what i know is that miller's hogs are fat, 
but what i don't know is whose corn fattens them." 

3. This year Christmas will come on friday the twenty-fifth of 
december. 

4. The advice given by an irishman to his english friend, on in- 
troducing him to a regular tipperary row was, "whenever you see a 
head, hit it." 

5. The governor of north Carolina is said to be on intimate terms 
with the governor of south Carolina. 

6. God is a spirit ; and they that worship him must worship him 
in spirit and in truth. 

7. A good whig makes a poor tory. 

8. Judge Jeffreys, pointing with his cane to a man who was about 
to be tried, said, "There is a great rogue at the end of my cane." 

The man pointed at inquired, "at which end, o my lord?" 

9. One of the most interesting figures in recent american history 
is colonel Theodore Roosevelt, he has served as governor of New 
York state, and as assistant secretary of the navy, during the Span- 
ish war he took part in the battle of San Juan hill. He was elected 
vice-president on the republican ticket, and later president. In 191 2 
he was the progressive candidate for the presidency, but was defeated 
by Woodrow Wilson, formerly president of Princeton university.. 
His home is at Oyster bay, Long island. 

10. " A tale of two cities " by Charles Dickens gives a picture of 
the life in paris and london during the days of the french revolution. 

LESSON II 

Review. Name the part of speech of each word in the 
following exercises. 

1. And the heart that is soonest awake to the flowers, 
Is always the first to be touched by the thorns. 

2. "I see you on the porch of our little cottage in my mind's eye." 
(What is wrong with the structure of this sentence ?) 

3. What has horns will gore. 



CAPITALS 93 

4. Few friendly remarks are more annoying than the information 
that we are always seeming to do what we never mean to do. 

5. If all the world were blind, what a melancholy sight it would be. 
(What is wrong with this sentence ?) 

6. He is unworthy to govern who governs not himself. 

7. A young woman played on a harp with golden hair. (What is 
wrong with the structure of this sentence ?) 

8. That that is, is ; that that is not, is not. 

9. Wanted : two apprentices who will be treated as one of the 
family. (What is wrong with this sentence ?) 

10. The weakest spot in every man is where he thinks himself to 
be the wisest. 

11. Those beings only are fit for solitude who like nobody, are 
like nobody, and are liked by nobody. 

12. A noble heart, like the sun, showeth its greatest countenance 
in its lowest estate. 

13. The hardest trial of the heart is to bear a rival's failure without 
triumph. 

14. He that was only taught by himself, had a fool for his master. 

15. It is a miserable thing to live in suspense; it is the life of a 
spider. 

LESSON III 

Make a little speech on one of the following subjects, 
having obtained your information by observation. 

1. How a gang of workmen lays tracks. 

2. The order of a church service. 

3. How surgical dressings are made for the Red Cross. 

4. How a certain commodity is manufactured. 

5. How the doctor dressed my wound. 

6. How a house is built. 

7. How firemen fight fires. 

8. How birds make their nests. 

9. How a phonograph works. 

10. (Some subject you are particularly interested in.) 



94 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON IV 

Write a theme on one of these subjects, having obtained 
your information by observation. 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise., 

THE NYMPH'S SONG TO HYLAS 

I know a little garden close 
Set thick with lily and red rose, 
Where I would wander if I might 
From dewy dawn to dewy night, 
And have one with me wandering. 

And though within it no birds sing, 
And though no pillared house is there, 
And though the apple boughs are bare 
Of fruit and blossom, would to God, 
Her feet upon the green grass trod, 
And I beheld them as before. 

There comes a murmur from the shore, 
And in the place two fair streams are, 
Drawn from the purple hills afar, 
Drawn down unto the restless sea ; 
The hills whose flowers ne'er fed the bee, 
The shore no ship has ever seen, 
Still beaten by the billows green, 
Whose murmur comes unceasingly 
Unto the place for which I cry. 

For which I cry both day and night, 
For which I let slip all delight, 
That maketh me both deaf and blind, 
Careless to win, unskilled to find, 
And quick to lose what all men seek. 

Yet tottering as I am, and weak, 

Still have I left a little breath 



CAPITALS 95 

To seek within the jaws of death 

An entrance to that happy place, 

To seek the unforgotten face 

Once seen, once kissed, once reft from me 

Anigh the murmuring of the sea. 

William Morris (1834^1896) 



CHAPTER XIII 
PHRASES, PREPOSITIONS 

LESSON I 

Phrases. A phrase is a group of words, not containing 
a subject or predicate, used as a single part of speech. 

i. In place of; 2. with the injured foot; 3. with great speed; 
4. bending over his books ; 5. to understand a lesson. 

All these may be used in the same construction as single 
words ; that is, single words may be substituted in their 
places without changing the structure of the sentences 
they are in. None of them contain subjects or predicates. 

1. James ran in place of John. (Preposition) 

2. The horse with the injured foot is Mr. Jones's. (Adjective) 

3. The ship sailed with great speed. (Adverb) 

4. He spent the evening bending over his books. (Adverb) 

5. To understand a lesson is to know a lesson. (Nouns) 

The phrases in the sentences just given have the same 
construction as the italicized words in the following sen- 
tences. 

1. James ran for John. (Preposition) 

2. The lame horse is Mr. Jones's. (Adjective) 

3. The ship sailed swiftly. (Adverb) 

4. He spent the evening industriously. (Adverb) 

5. Understanding is knowledge. (Nouns) 

96 



PHRASES, PREPOSITIONS 97 

Structurally there are three kinds of phrases. A prepo- 
sitional phrase is made up of a preposition and its 
object. A participial phrase is made up of a participle, 
with its object and modifiers. An infinitive phrase is 
made up of an infinitive, with its subject, object, and 
modifiers. 

PREPOSITIONAL. They went to the house on the hill They 
went into the garden. 

PARTICIPIAL. Reading his paper, he awaited the arrival of his 
friend. Running rapidly, he caught the train. 

INFINITIVE. To row across the stream was impossible. To 
speak French correctly is an accomplishment. 

All the phrases given in these exercises may be used as 
single parts of speech. They may then be called adjective 
phrases or adverbial phrases or substantive phrases. 

1. They went to the house on the hill. (The prepositional phrase 
modifies the noun house; it may therefore be called an " adjective" 
phrase.) 

2. Reading his paper, he awaited the arrival of his friend. (The 
participial phrase modifies the verb awaited; it may therefore be called 
an "adverbial" phrase.) 

3. To row across the stream was impossible. (The infinitive phrase 
is used as the subject of the sentence ; it may therefore be called a 
" substantive" phrase.) 

It is sometimes difficult to understand how a phrase 
may be at the same time a prepositional phrase and an 
adjective phrase, or a participial phrase and an adverbial 
phrase. It will perhaps be easier to do so, if you remem- 
ber that the first name of the phrase deals with its struc- 
ture, and answers the question " How is it composed? " 
The second name deals with its use, and answers the ques- 
tion " How is it used?" Three men may be: one a 

H 



9 8 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



Frenchman, one a Belgian, one a Russian. All three may, 
however, be soldiers, sailors, or priests. 

Prepositions. A preposition is a word placed before a 
noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word. 
Following is a list of prepositions in common use. 



aboard 


below 


instead of 


since 


about 


beneath 


into 


through 


above 


beside 


like 


throughout 


according to 


between 


near 


till 


across 


beyond 


notwithstanding 


to 


after 


by 


of 


toward 


against 


concerning 


off 


under 


along 


despite 


on 


underneath 


amid 


down 


on account of 


until 


among 


during 


out of 


unto 


around 


except (but) 


over 


up 


at 


for 


past 


upon 


because of 


from 


regarding 


with 


before 


in 


respecting 


within 


behind 


in front of 


round 


without 




LESSON II 





In the following exercises pick out all the phrases ; tell 
what kinds of phrases they are and how they are used. 
Pick out also all the prepositions. 

i. To be of use in the world is the only way to be happy. 

2. He holds his nose to the grindstone. 

3. No man can stand always on his guard. 

4. All great men are in some degree inspired. 

5. A hero is known in time of misfortune. 

6. Hedgehogs are not to be killed with a fist. 

7. To be great we must know how to push our fortunes to the 
utmost. 

8. Hell is paved with good intentions. 



PHRASES, PREPOSITIONS 99 

9. To be conquered by a hero is an honor. 
10. No one likes justice brought home to his own door, 
n. To know the disease is the commencement of the cure. 

12. The mother of a coward does not often weep. 

13. Beware of the fury of a patient man. 

14. The maladies of the body may prove medicines to the mind. 

15. Between the hand and the lip, 
The morsel may slip. 

16. Man)? - a thing whispered in one ear is heard over the whole 
town. 

17. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 

18. The Right Honorable gentleman is indebted to his memory 
for his jests, and to his imagination for his facts. 

19. seemed washing his hands with invisible soap, 

In imperceptible water. 
20. A thing of beauty is a joy forever ; 

Its loveliness increases ; it will never 

Pass into nothingness. 

LESSON III 

Select one of the following, and in a short speech impart 
to the class the information you have secured. 

1. Ask a motorman how he runs his car. 

2. Ask a lawyer what is murder in the first degree. 

3. Ask a banker the difference between stocks and bonds. 

4. Ask a traveler about some city you have never visited. (Per- 
haps he could tell you about Rheims, page 104 ; or about Monreale, 
page 44.) 

5. Ask a cook the difference between raised and baking-powder 
biscuits. 

6. Ask a sailor about his daily life on board a ship. 

7. Ask an engineer how he surveys a lot. 

8. Ask an author how a book is copyrighted. 

9. Ask an elevator-boy how an elevator works. 

10. (Ask someone who knows to give you some information 

about a subject in which you are especially interested.) 



ioo THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON IV 

Write a theme based on information you have been able 
to obtain on one of these subjects. 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

The present situation of the world is indeed without a parallel, 
and that of our own country full of difficulties. The pressure of these, 
too, is the more severely felt because they have fallen upon us at a 
moment when the national prosperity being at a height not before 
attained, the contrast resulting from the change has been rendered 
the more striking. Under the benign influence of our republican 
institutions, and the maintenance of peace with all nations whilst so 
many of them were engaged in bloody and wasteful wars, the fruits 
of a just policy were enjoyed in an unrivaled growth of our faculties 
and resources. . . . 

It is a precious reflection that the transition from this prosperous 
condition of our country to the scene which has for some time been 
distressing us, is not chargeable on any unwarrantable views, nor, as 
I trust, on any involuntary errors in the public councils. Indulging 
no passions which trespass on the rights or the repose of other nations, 
it has been the true glory of the United States to cultivate peace by 
observing justice. 
James Madison (1751-1836). From his " First Inaugural Address " 



CHAPTER XIV 
INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 

LESSON I 

Infinitive. The infinitive is that form of the verb which 
names the action; it may therefore be called a verbal 
noun. To run does not assert an action; the words 
merely form the name of the action. 

The infinitive has two tenses : the present, which names 
an action without specifying at what time it takes place ; 
and the past, which names an action that, in relation to 
the tense of the main verb, has already taken place. 

PRESENT, to run, to be, to rejoice. 

PAST. to have run, to have been, to have rejoiced. 

Gerund. The gerund (or, as it is sometimes called, the 
infinitive in -ing) is also a verbal noun. In the sentence 
" Skating is a good sport," skating names an action; it 
does not assert any action. 

Participles. The participle is that form of the verb 
which partakes of the nature of both a verb and an ad- 
jective. It partakes of the nature of an adjective in that 
it must directly attach itself to some substantive, and it 
partakes of the nature of a verb in that it implies action 
or condition. In the sentence, " Running down the street, 
the man met me," the participle, though it implies action, 
is also directly attached to the substantive man, and 



102 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

actually modifies it. (" What kind of man met me?" 
" A running man.") 

The participle has three tenses. 

PRESENT. Running down the street, the man met me. 
PAST. Fallen on the field of battle, he was found the next day. 
PERFECT. Having been a student at the school, he knew the 
cheers. 

Many present and past participles have been used so 
often as adjectives, that their verbal association has been 
almost entirely lost. 

A broken pitcher, an enameled sauce-pan, a bathing-be&ch. 

LESSON II 

Pick out the infinitives in the following exercises. Tell 
what tenses they are in. 

i. It is observed of gold by an old epigrammatist, that to have it 
is to be in fear ; to want it, to be in sorrow. 

2. Happy thou that learned from another's griefs not to subject 
thyself to the same. 

3. But to see her was to love her, 
Love but her, and her forever. 

4. The greatest proof of real success in life is the ability to control 
one's self. 

5. Hair is not to be mentioned in a bald man's house. 

6. There is nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so. 

7. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some 
few to be chewed and digested. 

8. It is an equal failing to trust everybody and to trust nobody. 

9. To be happy at home is the ultimate result of all ambition, the 
end to which every enterprise and labor tends, and of which every 
desire prompts the prosecution. 

10. The scholar without good breeding is a pedant ; the philos- 
opher, a cynic ; the soldier, a brute ; and every man disagreeable. 



INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 103 

Pick out the participles in the following exercises. Tell 
what tenses they are in. Note whether their verbal force 
is as strong as their adjectival force. 

1. What a pity flowers can utter no sound! a singing rose, a 
whispering violet, a murmuring honeysuckle ! O what a rare and 
exquisite miracle would these be ! 

2. Who would not be 
A Mermaid fair, 
Singing alone, 
Combing her hair, 
Under the sea, 

In a golden curl, 
With a comb of pearl, 
On a throne ? 

3. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again ; 
The eternal years of God are hers ; 
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 
And dies among his worshipers. 

4. Precept is instruction written on the sand ; the tide flows over 
it, and the record is gone. Example is graven on the rock, and the 
lesson is not soon lost. 

5. A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he 
not quench. 

6. Our very hopes belied our fears ; 
Our fears our hopes belied ; 

We thought her dying when she slept, 
And sleeping when she died. 

7. Grieving, if aught inanimate e'er grieves, 
Over the unre turning brave. 

8. Rolling stones gather no moss. 

9. On the ear 
Drops the light drip of the suspended oar. 

10. Welcome the coming, speed the parting guest. 



104 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON III 

Oral and written composition. Sometimes you are as- 
signed a subject to write on or to speak on about which 
you know little or nothing ; or you choose a subject which, 
though you may be interested in it, you have not much 
knowledge about. You are obliged to go to books for 
your information. 

Go first to an up-to-date encyclopedia ; that will give 
you a general, and in some cases a pretty complete idea of 
the thing you want to know. It will also give you a list 
of references, — books and articles you can turn to to gain 
fuller knowledge. For the most recent information you 
will have to go to magazine articles, and to know just 
what to turn to, consult Poole's Index or some similar 
index. It is always wise before you begin looking up 
material, before you start your research, as it is commonly 
called, to ask your teacher or the librarian in your local 
library to help you take your first steps. 

Look up one of the following, and make a short speech 
on some phase of the subject. 

i. Submarines. 

2. Mozart. 

3. Chess. 

4. Airplanes. 

5. Siam. 

6. Defoe. 

7. Rheims Cathedral. 

8. Hoop-skirts. 

9. The Bertillon system. 

10. — — (Some subject you are particularly interested in, or some 
subject suggested by one of the pictures in this book.) 




RHEIMS CATHEDRAL 



INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 105 

LESSON IV 

Look up one of these subjects and write a theme on it. 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

CROSSING THE BAR 

Sunset and evening star, 

And one clear call for me ! 
And may there be no moaning of the bar, 

When I put out to sea, 

But such a tide as moving seems asleep, 

Too full for sound and foam, 
When that which drew from out the boundless deep 

Turns again home. 

Twilight and evening bell, 

And after that the dark ! 
And may there be no sadness of farewell, 

When I embark ; 

For though from out our bourne of time and place 

The flood may bear me far, 
I hope to see my Pilot face to face 

When I have crossed the bar. 

Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-189 2) 



CHAPTER XV 
CLAUSES 

LESSON I 

Clauses. A clause is a part of a sentence containing a 
subject and predicate. It may be used as a simple sen- 
tence, as a part of a sentence, or even as a single part of 
speech in a sentence. You must note that a simple sen- 
tence is not a clause, for a clause is a part of a sentence. 
Two simple sentences, joined together into one compound 
sentence, become clauses ; but they are not clauses if 
they are kept as two simple sentences. 

i. / am a freshman, but she is a sophomore. (Both of the clauses 
can be used as simple sentences.) 

2. If he comes, we will greet him. (The italicized clause does not 
express a complete thought, and so cannot be used as a simple sen- 
tence ; it only forms a part of a sentence.) 

3. What they say is wrong. (The italicized clause is the subject 
of the sentence and so may be considered a noun.) 

4. The house where the meeting took place is Mr. Brown's. (The 
italicized clause modifies the noun house and so may be considered an 
adjective.) 

5. He ran when he heard the bell ring. (The italicized clause 
modifies the verb ran and so may be considered an adverb.) 

(A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is called a relative 
clause. A clause introduced by if, supposing, or a word of similar 
meaning, is called a conditional clause. A clause introduced by an 
adverb of time is called a temporal clause.) 

106 



CLAUSES 



107 



When a clause can be used as a simple sentence, it is 
called an independent clause or a principal clause or a co- 
ordinate clause ; when one cannot be used as a simple 
sentence, it is called a dependent clause or a subordinate 
clause. When a clause is used as a noun, it is called a 
substantive clause ; when one is used as an adjective, it 
is called an adjective clause ; and when one is used as an 
adverb, it is called an adverbial clause. 

In the sentence " I am a freshman, but she is a sopho- 
more," both clauses are coordinate; both are also inde- 
pendent clauses. In the sentence "If he comes, we will 
greet him," the first clause is a dependent clause; it may 
also be called a subordinate clause. The second clause 
is an independent clause ; it may also be called the prin- 
cipal clause. 

(You will note that in considering the first sentence neither clause 
was called a principal clause, because both clauses are of equal value. 
In considering the second sentence, the second clause was not called 
a coordinate clause, because, as it is the only independent clause in 
the sentence, there is no other clause to which it can be equal in value, 
or coordinate.) 

Complex sentences. A complex sentence is one made 
up of a principal clause and one or more subordinate 
clauses. 

LESSON II __ 

In the following exercises tell whether the sentences are 
complex or compound. Pick out the clauses and tell 
whether they may be used as simple sentences, as parts 
of a sentence, or as single parts of speech in a sentence. 
If they are used as single parts of speech, tell what kinds 
of clauses they are. Note which ones are principal, in- 



108 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

dependent, or coordinate, and which are dependent or 
subordinate. Distinguish between these terms. 

i. Though the heavens be glorious, yet they are not all stars. 

2. When she had passed, it seemed like the ceasing of exquisite 
music. 

3. Since my house must be burned, I will warm myself at it. 

4. The wagon must go whither the horses draw it. 

5. The grass never grew again where Attila's horse had trod. 

6. The good or evil we confer on others often recoils on ourselves. 

7. In governing others you must do what you can do, not what 
you would do. 

8. It never troubles the wolf how many the sheep may be. 

9. A few days ago we had the gratification of seeing a little boy 
taken from under a sand-bank that had fallen on him. His terror 
had not turned his hair white, but he was decidedly sandy-haired. 

10. Education begins the gentleman, but reading, good company, 
and education must finish him. 

11. Sir, since the government has let the cat out of the bag, there 
is nothing to be done but to take the bull by the horns, and set the 
ball rolling at once. (What is wrong with this sentence ?) 

12. Justice is as strictly due between neighbor nations as between 
neighbor citizens. A highwayman is as much a robber when he 
plunders in a gang, as when single ; and a nation that makes an unjust 
war, is only a great gang of robbers. 

13. It is a good thing to laugh at any rate; and if a straw can 
tickle a man, it is an instrument of happiness. Beasts can weep when 
they suffer, but they cannot laugh. 

14. Whatever disgrace we may have deserved, it is almost always 
in our power to reestablish our character. 

15. Weariness 
Can snore upon the flint, when resty sloth 
Finds the down pillow hard. 

LESSON III 

Reading exercise. " A Dissertation upon Roast Pig " 
is taken from Essays of Ella (pronounced elya) by Charles 



CLAUSES 



109 



Lamb (1 775-1834). Lamb, like so many of our literary 
men, had a very sad life. He was poor, and had to work 
as a clerk almost all his days. His sister Mary, who often 
collaborated with him, had occasional attacks of insanity, 
and would have to be committed to an asylum. In spite 
of all the drudgery and sorrow that came into his life, 
Charles Lamb has left us a number of things that are well 
worth reading. There is a tinge of melancholy in much 
that he has written, but there is no pessimism ; and there 
is much cheerfulness. 

A DISSERTATION UPON ROAST PIG 

./ Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, for the first seventy thou- 
sand ages ate their meat raw, clawing or biting it from the living ani- 
mal. The manuscript goes on to say, that the art of roasting, or 
rather broiling, was accidentally discovered in the manner following. 
The swine-herd, Ho-ti, having gone out into the woods one morning, 
as his manner was, to collect mast for his hogs, left his cottage in the 
care of his eldest son Bo-bo, a great lubberly boy, who being fond of 
playing with fire, as younkers of his age commonly are, let some 
sparks escape into a bundle of straw, which kindling quickly, spread 
the conflagration over every part of their poor mansion, till it was 
reduced to ashes. Together with the cottage, what was of much 
more importance, a fine litter of new-farrowed pigs, no less than nine 
in number, perished. China pigs have been esteemed a luxury all 
over the East from the remotest periods that we read of. Bo-bo was 
in the utmost consternation, as you may think, not so much for the 
sake of the tenement, which his father and he could easily build up 
again with a few dry branches, and the labour of an hour or two, at 
any time, as for the loss of the pigs. While he was thinking what he 
should say to his father, and wringing his hands over the smoking 
remnants of one of those untimely sufferers, an odour assailed his 
nostrils, unlike any scent which he had before experienced. What 
could it proceed from ? — not from the burnt cottage — he had smelt 
that smell before — indeed this was by no means the first accident 



no THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

of the kind which had occurred through the negligence of this unlucky 
young firebrand. Much less did it resemble that of any known herb, 
weed, or flower. A premonitory moistening at the same time over- 
flowed his nether lip. He knew not what to think. He next stooped 
down to feel the pig, if there were any signs of life in it. He burnt 
his fingers, and to cool them he applied them in his booby fashion to 
his mouth. Some of the crumbs of the scorched skin had come away 
with his ringers, and for the first time in his life (in the world's life 
indeed, for before him no man had known it) he tasted — crackling ! 
Again he felt and fumbled at the pig. It did not burn him so much 
now, still he licked his ringers from a sort of habit. The truth at 
length broke into his slow understanding, that it was the pig that 
smelt so, and the pig that tasted so delicious ; and, surrendering 
himself up to the new-born pleasure, he fell to tearing up whole hand- 
fuls of the scorched skin with the flesh next it, and was cramming it 
down his throat in his beastly fashion, when his sire entered amid the 
smoking rafters, armed with retributory cudgel, and finding how 
affairs stood, began to rain blows upon the young rogue's shoulders, 
as thick as hail-stones, which Bo-bo heeded not any more than if they 
had been flies. The tickling pleasure, which he experienced in his 
lower regions, had rendered him quite callous to any inconveniences 
he might feel in those remote quarters. His father might lay on, 
but he could not beat him from his pig, till he had fairly made an end 
of it, when, becoming a little more sensible of his situation, something 
like the following dialogue ensued : 

"You graceless whelp, what have you got there devouring? Is it 
not enough that you have burnt me down three houses with your 
dog's tricks, and be hanged to you, but you must be eating fire, and 
I know not what — what have you got there, I say?" 

"O father, the pig, the pig, do come and taste how nice the burnt 
pig eats." 

The ears of Ho-ti tingled with horror. He cursed his son, and he 
cursed himself that ever he should beget a son that should eat burnt 

Pig. 

Bo-bo, whose scent was wonderfully sharpened since morning, soon 
raked out another pig, and fairly rending it asunder, thrust the lesser 
half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti, still shouting out, "Eat, 
eat, eat the burnt pig, father, only taste, — O Lord," — with such- 



CLAUSES in 

like barbarous ejaculations, cramming all the while as if he would 
choke. 

Ho-ti trembled in every joint while he grasped the abominable 
thkig, wavering whether he should not put his son to death for an 
unnatural young monster, when the crackling scorching his ringers, 
as it had done his son's, and applying the same remedy to them, he 
in his turn tasted some of its flavour, which, make what sour mouths 
he would for a pretence, proved not altogether displeasing to him. In 
conclusion (for the manuscript here is a little tedious) both father and 
son fairly sat down to the mess, and never left off till they had de- 
spatched all that remained of the litter. 

Bo-bo was strictly enjoined not to let the secret escape, for the 
neighbours would certainly have stoned them for a couple of abom- 
inable wretches, who could think of improving upon the good meat 
which God had sent them. Nevertheless, strange stories got about. 
It was observed that Ho-ti's cottage was burnt down now more fre- 
quently than ever. Nothing but fires from this time forward. Some 
would break out in broad day, others in the night-time. As often 
as the sow farrowed, so sure was the house of Ho-ti to be in a blaze ; 
and Ho-ti himself, which was the more remarkable, instead of chas- 
tising his son, seemed to grow more indulgent to him than ever. At 
length they were watched, the terrible mystery discovered, and father 
and son summoned to take their trial at Pekin, then an inconsiderable 
assize town. Evidence was given, the obnoxious food itself produced 
in court, and verdict about to be pronounced, when the foreman of 
the jury begged that some of the burnt pig, of which the culprits stood 
accused, might be handed into the box. He handled it, and they all 
handled it, and burnt their ringers, as Bo-bo and his father had done 
before them, and nature prompting to each of them the same remedy, 
against the face of all the facts, and the clearest charge which 
judge had ever given, — to the surprise of the whole court, townsfolk, 
strangers, reporters, and all present — without leaving the box, or 
any manner of consultation whatever, they brought in a simultaneous 
verdict of Not Guilty. 

The judge, who was a shrewd fellow, winked at the manifest iniq- 
uity of the decision ; and, when the court was dismissed, went privily, 
and bought up all the pigs that could be had for love or money. In 
a few days his Lordship's town house was observed to be on fire. The 



112 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

thing took wing, and now there was nothing to be seen but fires in 
every direction. Fuel and pigs grew enormously dear all over the 
districts. The insurance offices one and all shut up shop. People 
built slighter and slighter every day, until it was feared that the very 
science of architecture would in no long time be lost to the world. 
Thus this custom of firing houses continued, till in process of time, 
says my manuscript, a sage arose, who made a discovery, that the 
flesh of swine, or indeed of any other animal, might be cooked without 
the necessity of consuming a whole house to dress it. Then first 
began the rude form of a gridiron. By such slow degrees, concludes 
the manuscript, do the most useful, and seemingly the most obvious 
arts, make their way among mankind. 

Without placing too implicit faith in the account above given, it 
must be agreed, that if a worthy pretext for so dangerous an experi- 
ment as setting houses on fire (especially in these days) could be 
assigned in favour of any culinary object, that pretext and excuse 
might be found in roast pig. 

I speak not of your grown porkers — things between pig and pork 
— those hobbledehoys — but a young and tender suckling — under a 
moon old — guiltless as yet of the sty — his voice as yet not broken, 
but something between a childish treble, and a grumble — the mild 
forerunner, or prceludium, of a grunt. 

He must be roasted. I am not ignorant that our ancestors ate them 
seethed, or boiled — but what a sacrifice of the exterior tegument ! 

See him in his dish, his second cradle, how meek he lieth ! — 
wouldst thou have had this innocent grow up to the grossness and 
indocility which too often accompany maturer swinehood? Ten to 
one he would have proved a glutton, a sloven, an obstinate, disagree- 
able animal — wallowing in all manner of filthy conversation — from 
these sins he is happily snatched away — 

a Ere sin could blight, or sorrow fade, 
Death came with timely care" — 
his memory is odoriferous — no clown curseth, while his stomach 
half rejecteth, the rank bacon — no coalheaver bolteth him in reeking 
sausages — he hath a fair sepulchre in the grateful stomach of the 
judicious epicure — and for such a tomb might be content to die. 

I am one of those, who freely and ungrudgingly impart a share of 
the good things of this life which fall to their lot (few as mine are in 



CLAUSES 113 

this kind) to a friend. I protest I take as great an interest in my 
friend's pleasures, his relishes, and proper satisfactions, as in mine 
own. " Presents," I often say, " endear Absents." Hares, pheas- 
ants, partridges, snipes, barn-door chickens, plovers, barrels of oysters, 
I dispense as freely as I receive them. I love to taste them, as it were, 
upon the tongue of my friend. But a stop must be put somewhere. 
One would not, like Lear, "give everything." I make my stand upon 
pig. Methinks it is an ingratitude to the Giver of all good favours, 
to send out of the house, slightingly (under pretext of friendship, or 
I know not what), a blessing so particularly adapted, predestined, I 
may say, to my individual palate. It argues an insensibility. 

I remember a touch of conscience in this kind at school. My good 
old aunt, who never parted from me at the end of a holiday without 
stuffing a sweetmeat, or some nice thing into my pocket, had dismissed 
me one evening with a smoking plum-cake, fresh from the oven. In 
my way to school a grey-headed old beggar saliited me (I have no 
doubt at this time of day that he was a counterfeit) . I had no pence 
to console him with, and in the vanity of self-denial, and the very 
coxcombry of charity, schoolboy-like, I made him a present of — the 
whole cake ! I walked on a little, buoyed up, as one is on such oc- 
casions, with a sweet soothing of self-satisfaction; but before I had 
got to the end of the bridge, my better feelings returned, and I burst 
into tears, thinking how ungrateful I had been to my good aunt, to 
go and give her good gift away to a stranger, that I had never seen 
before, and who might be a bad man for aught I knew ; and then I 
thought of the pleasure my aunt would be taking in thinking that I 
— I myself, and not another — would eat her nice cake — and what 
should I say to her the next time I saw her — how naughty I was to 
part with her pretty present — and the odour of that spicy cake came 
back upon my recollection, and the pleasure and the curiosity I had 
taken in seeing her make it, and her joy when she sent it to the oven, 
and how disappointed she would feel that I had never had a bit of it 
in my mouth at last — and I blamed my impertinent spirit of alms- 
giving, and out-of -place hypocrisy of goodness, and above all I wished 
never to see the face again of that insidious, good-for-nothing, old grey 
impostor. 

Our ancestors were nice in their method of sacrificing these tender 
victims. We read of pigs whipt to death with something of a shock, 
1 



ii 4 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

as we hear of any other obsolete custom. The age of discipline is gone 
by, or it would be curious to inquire what effect this process might 
have towards intenerating and dulcifying a substance, naturally so 
mild and dulcet as the flesh of young pigs. It looks like refining a 
violet. Yet we should be cautious, while we condemn the inhu- 
manity, how we censure the wisdom of the practice. It might impart 
a gusto — 

His sauce should be considered. Decidedly, a few bread crumbs, 
done up with his liver and brains, and a dash of mild sage. But, 
banish, dear Mrs. Cook, I beseech you, the whole onion tribe. Bar- 
becue your whole hogs to your palate, steep them in shalots, stuff 
them out with plantations of the rank and guilty garlic ; you cannot 
poison them, or make them stronger than they are — but consider, 
he is a weakling — a flower. 

Pick out the clauses in the first paragraph ; tell what 
kind they are and how they are used. 



LESSON IV 

Write a theme, taking as your subject one of the follow- 
ing. If you wish, put it in the form of a letter. (See 
Chapter XXX, Lesson I, for a full discussion of letter- 
writing.) Look over what has been said about " point 
of view " (Chapter VI, Lesson IV, and Chapter VIII, 
Lesson IV). 

i. Poultry-raising. (For the benefit of one who knows nothing 
about chickens.) 

2. A fire. (From the standpoint of a fireman ; of a boy on his 
way to school ; of a dog locked in one of the rooms.) 

3. The Huguenot. (See the picture facing page 208. Write it 
from the standpoint of the man ; of the girl.) 

4. A sad incident. 

5. My favorite author. 

6. Butterflies. (For the benefit of one who knows nothing about 
them ; of one who knows a good deal about them.) 



CLAUSES ii = 

7. The adventures of a counterfeit quarter. 

8. The Camp Fire Girls. 

9. The Boy Scouts. 

10. (Some subject you are particularly interested in.) 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

ELIA 

Across the English meadows sweet, 
Across the smiling sunset land, 
I see them walk with faltering feet, 
Brother and sister, hand in hand. 

They know the hour of parting nigh, 
They pass into the dying day, 
And lo ! against the sunset sky 
Looms up the madhouse gaunt and gray. 

He keeps the lonely lamp aglow, 
While old loves whisper in the air 
Of unforgotten long ago 
Before his heart had known despair. 

He waits till she may come once more 
From out the darkness to his side, 
To share the changeless love of yore 
When all the old, old loves have died. 

Between me and this gentle book, 
Shining with humor rich and quaint, 
The sad scene rises, and I look 
Upon a jester — or a saint. 

I lift my eyes, still brimming o'er 

With love and laughter — and there falls 

Across the page forever more, 

The shadow of the madhouse walls ! 

E, J. McPhelim 



CHAPTER XVI 
CLAUSES (Continued) 

LESSON I 

One of the things that mark the difference between the 
man who knows and the man who doesn't know is the 
ability of the former to note distinctions between things 
and ideas that the latter cannot perceive. There is a 
difference between a rip-saw and a cross-cut saw, between 
knitting and crocheting, between an in-shoot and an out- 
drop ; and there is a difference between a restrictive clause 
and a non-restrictive clause. The further one goes in the 
study of any subject, whether it be accounting, domestic 
science, physics, or philosophy, the more he must note 
distinctions, the more he must keep his senses awake to 
perceive shades of difference. If you will strive in your 
English work and in your work in other subjects to appre- 
ciate similarities and dissimilarities, you will do your work 
more effectively, with less expenditure of energy, and — 
what is more — you will enjoy it much better. 

Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses. It is 
often hard to distinguish between restrictive and non- 
restrictive relative clauses. In the sentence " This is the 
house that Jack built," the clause that Jack built restricts 
or limits the word house. In the sentence " The house, 
which was painted a light brown, stood on the brow of the 

116 



CLAUSES 117 

hill," the clause which was painted a light brown does not 
restrict or limit the word house ; it only describes the 
house. Throughout this chapter the term " descriptive " 
will be used in place of " non-restrictive." 

Usually, the easiest way to tell whether a relative clause 
is restrictive or descriptive is to examine the antecedent 
carefully. If the antecedent is definitely designated 
without the relative clause, if it is a proper noun, for 
instance, the relative clause is descriptive. If, on the 
other hand, the antecedent is incomplete and vague with- 
out the relative clause, if it is an indefinite pronoun, for 
instance, the relative clause is restrictive. A restrictive 
clause makes the antecedent more definite or limits its 
number ; a descriptive clause makes an additional state- 
ment about an antecedent already definitely designated. 

[It is not always a sufficient test of a restrictive or a descriptive 
clause to remove it from the sentence and then to note if the meaning 
of the sentence is materially changed. Quite frequently a restrictive 
relative clause can be removed from a sentence without materially 
changing the meaning of the sentence. E.g. The man (who spoke) 
is my uncle.]. 

Descriptive relative clauses should be separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Position of words in a sentence. In studying about 
relative pronouns we learned that the relative (which we 
now know introduces a relative clause) should usually 
come as close as possible to its antecedent. 

The hat of a man whose name is John. NOT A man's hat whose 
name is John. 

Clearness in expression also requires that participial 
expressions should usually be placed immediately before 



n8 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

or immediately after the word which they modify. They 
should usually not dangle loosely at the end of the sentence. 

Having fed their horses, the soldiers continued their journey ; or 
The soldiers, having fed their horses, continued their journey. NOT 
The soldiers continued their journey, having fed their horses. 

Introductory, non-restrictive, and nominative absolute 
participial expressions should be separated from the rest 
of the sentence by commas. 

i. Singing to herself, she sat at the window and waited for the 
coming of the prince. 

2. He rose and, closing the door after him, went out into the street. 

3. The sun having risen, they continued their journey. (Good 
usage rather frowns on the employment of the nominative absolute.) 

The most important positions in a sentence are at the 
beginning and at the end. Important expressions should 
usually be placed in those positions, and unimportant 
ones should usually be kept out of those positions. 

He was hurt on the train ; and when he reached his destination, 
he was carried home in an ambulance. NOT On the train he was 
hurt, and was carried home in an ambulance when he reached his 
destination. (The rule just given is not absolute, for very frequently 
looser constructions are in perfectly good form.) 

LESSON II 

In the following exercises pick out the relative, condi- 
tional, and temporal clauses. In the case of the relative 
clauses tell whether they are restrictive or descriptive. 

1. A jury, who were directed to bring in a verdict of "guilty'' 
upon the prisoner's own confession and plea, brought in a verdict of 
"not guilty," and offered as a reason that they knew the fellow to 
be so great a liar that they did not believe him. 



CLAUSES 119 

2. Are not both gainers, when the heart's distress 
Is so divided that the pain is less. 

3. If a man does not make new acquaintances as he advances 
through life, he will soon find himself alone. A man should keep his 
friendship in constant repair. 

4. What's gone and what's past help 
Should be past grief. • 

5. When you have nothing to say, say nothing. _ 

6. What is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world and 
lose his own soul? 

7. If you would be known and not know, vegetate in a village ; 
if you would know and not be known, live in a city. 

8. When he is best, he is little better than a man ; and when he 
is worst, he is little better than a beast. 

9. When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk was he ; 
When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he. 

10. In literature our taste will be discovered by that which we 
give ; and our judgment by that which we withhold. 

Pick out the participial expressions in the following 
exercises and explain why they are placed as they are. 

1. Only reapers, reaping early 
In among the bearded barley, 
Hear a song that echoes cheerly 
From the river winding clearly, 

Down to towered Camelot : 
And by moon the reaper weary, 
Piling sheaves in uplands airy, 
Listening whispers, "'Tis the fairy 

Lady of Shalott." 

2. I saw him sitting by the stream. 

3. A judge, joking a young barrister, said, "If you and I were 
turned into horse and ass, which would you prefer to be?" 

"The ass, to be sure ; I have heard of an ass being made judge, 
but a horse, never!" 

4. So, purposing each moment to retire, 
She lingered still. 



120 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

5. And he, kneeling down, cried with a loud voice, "Lord, lay not 
this sin to their charge." And having said this, he fell asleep. 

In the following exercises which constructions are better ? 
Why? 

1. (a) Though you are bound to love your enemy, you are not 
bound to put your sword in his hand. 

(b) You are not bound to put your sword in your enemy's hand 
though you are bound to love him. 

2. (a) Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father is 
this : to keep himself unspotted from the world and to visit the father- 
less and widows in their affliction. 

(b) to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction and to 
keep himself unspotted from the world. 

3. (a) A Scotchman reasons before he fights ; an Irishman fights 
before he reasons; an Englishman is not particular as to the order 
of the precedence, but will do either to accommodate his customers. 

(b) An Irishman fights before he reasons ; a Scotchman reasons 
before he fights ; an Englishman is not particular as to the order of 
the precedence, but will do either to accommodate his customers. 

(c) An Englishman is not particular as to the order of the pre- 
cedence, but will do either to accommodate his customers ; while 
an Irishman fights before he reasons, and a Scotchman reasons before 
he fights. 

4. (a) Always look at those whom you are talking to, never at 
those you are talking of. 

(b) Never look at those you are talking of, always at those you 
are talking to. 

5. (a) Men will do anything but live for their religion ; they will 
write for it, wrangle for it, fight for it, die for it. 

(b) Men will wrangle for their religion, write for it, fight for it, 
die for it ; — anything but live for it. 



CLAUSES 121 

LESSON III 

In the lessons you have had so far, your exercises in 
written composition have followed those in oral composi- 
tion. As a result, perhaps, you have tried to make your 
speeches more interesting than your themes ; for you con- 
structed the former with the idea of an audience always in 
mind, whereas the latter you wrote only for the teacher's 
eyes. In this lesson, and in a number of subsequent ones, 
you will notice that the written work comes first. You 
will be called on to read or to recite what you have written 
before the entire class ; so make it as interesting as possible. 

Write a theme on one of the following subjects. You 
will need to make two copies of this theme : one for the 
teacher and one for your own use. 

i. What causes a volcano to erupt? (See the picture facing 
page 219.) 

2. Light-houses. 

3. Cooking by electricity. 

4. How to take care of a furnace. 

5. Camels. 

6. ElihuRoot. 

7. What is meant by a protective tariff. 

8. My favorite general in the European War. 

9. What should be done with cats. 

10. (Some subject you are particularly interested in.) 

LESSON IV 

Glance over the suggestions given in Lesson I of Chapter 
II — about reading aloud — and those given in Lesson III 
of Chapter IV — about your general deportment in speak- 
ing before an audience — and prepare yourself to read or 
to recite your theme to the class. 



122 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 
A WET SHEET AND A FLOWING SEA 

A wet sheet and a flowing sea, 

A wind that follows fast 
And fills the white and rustling sail 

And bends the gallant mast ; 
And bends the gallant mast, my boys, 

While like the eagle free 
Away the good ship flies, and leaves 

Old England on the lee. 

"O for a soft and gentle wind!" 

I hear a fair one cry ; 
But give to me the snoring breeze 

And white waves heaving high ; 
And white waves heaving high, my lads, 

The good ship tight and free — 
The world of waters is our home, 

And merry men are we. 

There's tempest in yon horned moon, 

And lightning in yon cloud ; 
But hark the music, mariners ! 

The wind is piping loud ; 
The wind is piping loud, my boys, 

The lightning flashing free — 
While the hollow oak our palace is, 

Our heritage the sea. 

Allan Cunningham (i 784-1842) 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE COMMA 

LESSON I 

Punctuation. A comma [,] should be used : 

i. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence when 

a connective is given, and neither clause is subdivided by 

a comma. 

■ The day is done, and the darkness falls. 

2. To separate a dependent clause from a main clause in 
a complex sentence when the dependent clause comes 
first. If the dependent clause follows the main clause, 
the comma may usually be omitted. If the subordinate 
clause is non-restrictive, a comma should be used. 

If it storms, they will not come. 
They will not come if it storms. 

3. To separate from the rest of the sentence non-restric- 
tive, introductory, and nominative absolute participial 
expressions. 

Having fed their horses, the soldiers continued their journey. 

4. To separate words, phrases, or clauses used in a series 
and not joined by conjunctions. If conjunctions are used 
between the terms in the series, commas are not necessary. 
If, however, a conjunction is used between the last two 

123 



124 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

terms in the series, commas should separate all the mem- 
bers, including the last two. 

The beautiful day, the crowds of people, the stirring speeches, 
these remained in his memory. 

It was hot and sultry and disagreeable. 
He was a true, loving, and kind man. 

5. Before a direct quotation which is not longer than 
one sentence. 

He said, "Meet me at the station." 

6. To separate from the rest of the sentence all words, 
phrases, or clauses used in apposition. (An appositive, or 
a word or group of words used in apposition, is a word or 
group of words set next to another word, denoting the 
same thing and explaining it.) 

Madison, the capital of Wisconsin, has a fine public library. 

7. To separate from the rest of the sentence all words 
or groups of words that are grammatically independent or 
parenthetical. (A parenthetical word or group of words 
is a word or group of words attached to a sentence as a 
sort of side remark or comment. This includes some 
connecting adverbs like however, moreover, etc., which, 
without being added to any particular word, modify the 
sense of the whole statement.) 

Dante, will you believe it, was an exile. 

He is, moreover, a citizen of the United States. 



THE COMMA 125 

LESSON II 

Explain the use of the commas in the following exercises. 

1. " Would you have me serve you, good king, give me the means 
of living. " 

2. Vice stings us in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us even in 
our pains. 

3. He said unto him, " It is written, Thou shalt not tempt the 
Lord thy God." 

4. Speaking of angels, here you come. 

5. The people's voice, God's voice. 

6. Old wood to burn, old wine to drink, old friends to trust, old 
books to read. 

7/ The good are' joyful in the midst of poverty, but the wicked 
are sad in great riches. 

8. If the mountain will not go to Mohammed, Mohammed 
must go to the mountain. 

9. The defects of the mind, like those of the face, grow worse as 
we grow old. 

10. Memory tempers prosperity, mitigates adversity, controls 
youth, and delights old age. 

Punctuate the following exercises, explaining why you 
use the marks you do. 

1. Death and love two wings bear men from earth to heaven. 

2. Three years she grew in sun and shower 
Then Nature said A lovelier flower 

On earth was never seen. 

3. We should not be too niggardly in our praise for men will do 
more to support a character than to raise one. 

4. A voice soft gentle and low is an excellent thing in a woman. 

5. Hedges have no eyes but they have ears 

6. So said he and the barge with oar and sail 
Moved from the brink like some full-breasted swan 
That fluting a wild carol ere her death 

Ruffles her pure cold plume and takes the flood 



126 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

With swarthy webs. Long stood Sir Bedivere 
Revolving many memories till the hull 
Lookd one black dot against the verge of dawn 
And on the mere the wailing died away. 

7. Much water runs by the mill while the miller sleeps. (Be 
careful !) 

8. There is no substitute for thorough going ardent and sincere 
earnestness. 

9. The poor wren the most diminutive of birds will fight her young 
ones in the nest against the owl. (Be careful !) 

10. When there is milk in the can for one there is milk in the can 
for two. 

LESSON III 

Write a theme on one of the following subjects. Make 
two copies : one for your teacher and one for yourself. 

1. A story I recently read in a magazine. 

2. My most serious sickness. 

3. A famous diamond. 

4. Where I can find my favorite flower. 

5. Various means of earning money. 

6. The equipment of an American soldier. 

7. A noted American musician. 

8. Life-saving stations. 

9. Forestry as a profession. 

10. (Some subject you are particularly interested in.) 

LESSON IV 
Read or recite what you have written to the class. 

LESSON V 

Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

A rising nation, spread over a wide and fruitful land, traversing all 
the seas with the rich productions of their industry, engaged in com- 



THE COMMA 127 

merce with nations who feel power and forget right, advancing rap- 
idly to destinies beyond the reach of mortal eye — when I contem- 
plate these transcendent objects, and see the honor, the happiness, 
and the hopes of this beloved country committed to the issue and the 
auspices of this day, I shrink from the contemplation, and humble 
myself before the magnitude of the undertaking. Utterly indeed 
should I despair, did not the presence of many whom I here see re- 
mind me that in the other high authorities provided by our constitu- 
tion, I shall find resources of wisdom, of virtue, and of zeal on which to 
rely under all difficulties. To you, then, I look with encouragement 
for that guidance and support which may enable us to steer with 
safety the vessel in which we are all embarked, amidst the conflicting 
elements of a troubled world. 

Thomas Jefferson (1 743-1826), "First Inaugural Address " 



CHAPTER XVIII 
COMMON ERRORS 

LESSON I 

Common errors of speech. A story is told — whether 
true or not it makes no difference — of some officers in a 
regiment who entertained at dinner a private who had per- 
formed a conspicuously courageous deed. Hot soup was 
placed before each one, and then a waiter passed a dish 
full of small cubes of ice to be put into glasses that were to 
be filled with vichy. The waiter served the private first ; 
and he, being somewhat embarrassed, took a piece and put 
it into his soup. The ice was then passed to the officers ; 
every one put a piece in his soup. 

There are many excellent persons who make social errors 
in their speech. We should not laugh at them ; we should 
not make them feel uncomfortable by drawing attention to 
their slips — for that would be unkind. But just because 
they are excellent persons, it does not follow that we need 
copy their mistakes. Following are a number of terms 
frequently used incorrectly. 

i . Done for did. {Did is the past indicative ; done, the 
past participle.) 

He did the work. NOT He done the work. 

2. Don't for doesn't. (Don't is the abbreviation of do 
not; doesn't, of does not.) 

He doesn't do his work. NOT He donH do his work. 

128 



COMMON ERRORS 120 

3. Use to for used to. ( Use is the present tense ; used, 
the past tense.) 

He used to live in Texas. NOT He use to live in Texas. 

4. Must of for must have. 

He must have been very strong. NOT He must of been very 
strong. 

5. Can for may. 

May I leave the room? (Have I permission to leave the room?) 
NOT Can I leave the room? (Have I the ability to leave the 
room ?) 

6. Lay for lie — and vice versa. (Lay, laid, laid is tran- 
sitive ; lie, lay, lain is intransitive.) 

I lay down on the bed. NOT I laid down on the bed. 
Lie down. NOT Lay down. 

7. Sit for set — and vice versa. (Sit, sat, sat is intransi- 
tive ; set, set, set is transitive.) 

I sat down. NOT I set down. 

Sit on the chair. NOT Set on the chair. 

8. Seen for saw. (Seen is the past participle ; saw is the 
past indicative.) 

I saw him do it. NOT I seen him do it. 

9. Leave for let. (To leave means to set out ; to let, in 
this connection, means to allow.) 

Let me do it. NOT Leave me do it. 

10. Some place for somewhere ; any place for anywhere ; 
no place for nowhere. 

I put the book somewhere. NOT I put the book some place. 

K 



130 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

ii. HadnH ought for ought not. {Ought is the past tense 
of owe, and means practically the same thing as should.) 

I ought not to have done it. NOT I hadn't ought to have done it. 

12. Like for as if. 

He spoke as if he was angry. NOT He spoke like he was angry. 

13. For for that . . . should. 

He said that she should go. NOT He said for her to go. 

14. Very, as a modifier of the past participle. The word 
may modify an adjective. 

He was very cold. She was very much frightened. NOT She was 
very frightened. 

Punctuation. A semicolon [ ;] should be used : 

1 . To separate the clauses of a compound sentence when 
no connective is given. 

The sunrise comes ; the dew-drop slips into the shining sea. 

2. To separate two or more clauses, one or all of which 
are subdivided by commas. 

If he comes, we will greet him ; but I doubt if he comes. 

LESSON II 

Supply the correct forms in the exercises given below. 

TT / doesn't \ . . 

1. He \ , , f sing as he used to sing 



" Ben Bolt " and " Old Black Joe," 

/ don't \ 
For singers Uoesn , t j 

The songs of long ago. 



f don't \ , 
For singers < , , r sing as they used to sing 



COMMON ERRORS 131 

2. He J ,. , r splendidly in his part, and richly deserved the 
" Well <> ,. , r! " that greeted him on all sides. 

3. He must ^ , r seen the shadow with the tail of his eye. 

4. He \ , to insist that the man could not speak the truth ; 
because he not only had a lying tongue, but false teeth as well ! 

5- ] M ( the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots? 

6. The hen s , ., ran egg for the preacher, 

And thus did the Henry Ward Beecher. 

_, f saw 1 , ■ . : , _ ' f done 1 . 

7 ' The ^iseen/ theirdutyandthey ldid J lL 

n f Doesn't 1 , , , . . . , 

ID 't I People admire him ? 

/ Leave \ / lie \ 
9 ' I Let / him lky j where he fell. 

10. } M r I go to the library this evening? 

f sits 1 

11. The king J > in Dumferling toune, 

Drinking the blude-reid wine. 

12. He has gone some I , \ to look for lady-slippers. 

__ ' _ . / like 1 . . , . 

13. He looked S . f r he was going to say something. 

14. The teacher said { ^^ ^ } go home; he 

/ ought not 1 ' . . . . . 

|, ■ , , * r to have come out with such a cold. 

15. "Mamma, Willie has fell down." 

" Leave him lay where he is." (Correct all errors.) 

Explain the use of the semicolon in the following exer- 
cises. 



132 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

i. Gratitude is the least of virtues; ingratitude is the worst of 
vices. 

2. After joy, grief ; after grief, joy. 

3. Stop and let it pass ; the storm will have its way. 

4. Keep your feet dry and your head cool ; for the rest, live like a 
beast. 

5. It is not enough to aim ; you must hit. 

Punctuate the following exercises, explaining why you 
use the marks you do. 

1. The hero does not ask if there be evil omens he views death as 
going home. 

2. When he hits tis history when he misses tis mystery. 

3. Education begins a gentleman conversation completes him. 

4. Dig but deep enough and under all earth runs water under all 
life runs grief. 

5. What is mine is my own my brother Johns is his and mine. 

LESSON III 

Write a theme on one of the following subjects. (Make 
two copies.) 



1. My greatest disappointment. 

2. An example of devotion. 

3. Camping. 

4. The work of Frances E. Willard. 

5. How to make a stamp collection. 

6. A noted explorer. 

7. Modern guns. 

8. An athletic contest. (See the picture opposite.) 

9. A dance. 

10. (Some subject you are particularly interested in.) 

LESSON IV 

Read or recite what you have written to the class. 






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COMMON ERRORS 133 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

THE SOLITARY REAPER 

Behold her, single in the field, 
Yon solitary Highland lass ! 
Reaping and singing by herself ; 
Stop here, or gently pass ! 
Alone she cuts and binds the grain, 
And sings a melancholy strain ; 

listen ! for the vale profound 
Is overflowing with the sound. 

No nightingale did ever chaunt 
More welcome notes to weary bands 
Of travellers in some shady haunt, 
Among Arabian sands : 
A voice so thrilling ne'er was heard 
In spring-time from the cuckoo-bird, 
Breaking the silence of the seas 
Among the farthest Hebrides. 

Will no one tell me what she sings ? — 

Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow 

For old, unhappy, far-off things, 

And battles long ago : 

Or is it some more humble lay, 

Familiar matter of to-day? 

Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain, 

That has been, and may be again? 

Whate'er the theme, the maiden sang 
As if her song could have no ending ; 

1 saw her singing at her work, 
And o'er the sickle bending ; — 
I listened, motionless and still ; 
And, as I mounted up the hill, 
The music in my heart I bore, 
Long after it was heard no more. 

William Wordsworth (1 770-1850) 



CHAPTER XIX 
VARIETY IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE 

LESSONS I AND II 

We have learned that a simple sentence is a group of 
words expressing one complete thought ; that a compound 
sentence is one made up of two or more coordinate clauses 
(each capable of standing as a simple sentence) connected 
or not connected by coordinate conjunctions ; that a com- 
plex sentence is one made up of a principal clause and 
one or more subordinate clauses. 

The reason for our having these different kinds of sen- 
tences is twofold : i . We can express our various thoughts 
and the shades of their meaning better, if we have different 
kinds of vehicles to convey them in. If we wanted to 
move a grand-piano, we would not use a runabout, but a 
heavy truck. If we wanted to go to the theater, we would 
not travel in an ox-cart, but in a cab. Sentences are con- 
veyors of thought from one mind to other minds ; great 
care must be exercised in selecting the right kind of sen- 
tence to use for the special work we want it to do. 

2. Sentences bound together into a paragraph look better, 
sound better, are more interesting, if there is some variety 
to them. To look out of one's window and see nothing 
but trucks, nothing but " taxis " go by, would be monoto- 
nous and tiresome. We want to make those who hear, or 

134 



VARIETY IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE 135 

those who see our vehicles of thought, interested in what 
we have to say or write. 

In your speaking and in your writing try to vary your 
sentence structure so that : 

1. You express your thought in such a way that your 
hearer or reader gets the exact idea you wish to convey. 

2. You express your thought in such a way that your 
hearer or reader is interested and not bored by what you 
wish to convey. 

Analyze the following exercises. Tell what kind the 
sentences are, note the subjects and predicates, and pick 
out the parts of speech. In the case of nouns and verbs, 
tell of what sort they are and how they are used ; give the 
modes and tenses of the verbs. Tell whether the adjec- 
tives are descriptive or limiting. Give the degree of both 
adverbs and adjectives. Tell what the pronouns are 
(personal, demonstrative, etc.) and note their antecedents. 
Pick out the phrases and the clauses ; tell what kind they 
are and how they are used. Note whether the conjunctions 
are coordinate or subordinate. Explain all the punctua- 
tion marks and capitals used. 

1. Conscience in most men is but the anticipation of the opinions 
of others. 

2. Liberty may be endangered by the abuse of liberty as well as 
by the abuse of power. 

3. The higher the plum-tree, the riper the plum ; 
The richer the cobbler, the blacker his thumb. 

4. A little more than a little is by much too much. 

5. Gossip, in its milder stages, may even denote a sincere interest 
in the little affairs of life which is truly admirable. 

6. That is their spoonful of molasses in their vinegar of life. 

7. Sir, I do not call a gamester a dishonest man; but I call him 
an unsocial man, an unprofitable man. Gambling is a mode of 
transferring property without producing any intermediate good. 



136 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Trade gives employment to numbers and so produces intermediate 
good. 

8. With hue like that when some great painter dips 
His pencil in the gloom of earthquake and eclipse. 

(Is this a sentence?) 

9. A Frenchman, having repeatedly heard the word press, used 
to imply persuade, one evening — when in company — exclaimed, 
"Pray squeeze that lady to sing." 

10. If, unlike Goldsmith, he talked well in public, it was because, 
like Imlac, he had thought well in private. 

11. A young author, reading a tragedy, perceived his auditor 
often pull off his hat at the end of a line and asked him the reason. 
f "I cannot pass a very old acquaintance," replied the critic, "with- 
out that civility." 

12. The seeds of knowledge may be planted in solitude, but must 
be cultivated in public. 

13. Examinations are formidable even to the best prepared, for 
the greatest fool may ask more than the wisest man can answer. 

14. Some men are very entertaining for a first interview, but 
after that they are exhausted and run out ; on a second meeting we 
shall find them flat and monotonous; like hand-organs, we have 
heard all their tunes. 

15. " Madam, I have read his book, and I have nothing to say to 
him." 

16. Few people give themselves time to be friends. Why is the 
head always so suspicious of the heart? 

17. Have you ever seen a cat-fish ? 

\ No, but I have seen a rope-walk. 

18. A table is the best friend to sociable conversation. 

19. Even speed, when we are anxious, seems like delay. 

20. A lame mule and a stupid son have to endure everything. 

LESSON III 

Write a theme on one of the following subjects. If 
you wish, put it in the form of a letter. (Make two 
copies.) 



VARIETY IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE 137 

1. A hero of the navy. 

2. "For the honor of the school.' ' 

3. My dog. (See the picture facing page 186.) 

4. A spy. 

5. My favorite automobile. 

6. How won the Carnegie medal. 

7. A recent exposition. 

8. The work of a Red Cross nurse. 

9. Preparedness. 

10. (Some subject you are particularly interested in.) 

LESSON IV 

Read or recite to the class what you have written. 

LESSON V 
Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

"SAY NOT THE STRUGGLE NOUGHT AVAILETH "' 

Say not the struggle nought availeth, \ 

The labour and the wounds are vain, 
The enemy faints not, nor faileth, 

And as things have been they remain. 

If hopes were dupes, fears may be liars ; 

It may be, in yon smoke concealed, 
Your comrades chase e'en now the fliers, 

And, but for you, possess the field. 

For while the tired waves, vainly breaking, 

Seem here no painful inch to gain, 
Far back, through creeks and inlets making, 

Comes silent, flooding in, the main. 

And not by eastern windows only, 

When daylight comes, comes in the light, 

In front, the sun climbs slow, how slowly, 
But westward, look, the land is bright. 

Arthur Hugh Clough (18 19-186 1) 



CHAPTER XX 
THE PARAGRAPH 

LESSON I 

Paragraph. A paragraph may be a sentence, or a group of 
related sentences dealing with one main thought. A number 
of subordinate ideas may be brought out in a paragraph, 
but each should bear directly on the central thought. 

To the excessive modesty of Addison's nature, we must ascribe 
another fault which generally arises from a very different cause. He 
became a little too fond of seeing himself surrounded by a small 
circle of admirers, to whom he was as a king, or rather as a god. All 
these men were far inferior to him in ability, and some of them had 
very serious faults. Nor did those faults escape his observation ; 
for, if ever there was an eye that saw through and through men, it 
was the eye of Addison. But with the keenest observation, and 
the finest sense of the ridiculous, he had a large charity. The feel- 
ing with which he looked on most of his humble companions was 
one of benevolence, slightly tinctured with contempt. He was at 
perfect ease in their company; he was grateful for their devoted 
attachment ; and he loaded them with benefits. Their veneration 
for him appears to have exceeded that with which other great men 
have been regarded by their admirers. It was not in the power of 
adulation to turn such a head, or deprave such a heart as Addison's. 
But it must in candour be admitted, that he contracted some of the 
faults which can scarcely be avoided by any person who is so unfor- 
tunate as to be the oracle of a small literary coterie. Macaulay 

The main thought expressed in the paragraph is : Addison enjoyed 
being surrounded by admirers, but he was somewhat unfortunately 
influenced by them. 

138 



THE PARAGRAPH 139 

A paragraph may be likened to a chain made up of a 
number of links, the sentences playing the part of the 
links. As we have an unbroken chain if the links are all 
united, so we have a connected paragraph if the sentences 
are connected in thought, each with the one preceding it 
and the one following it. 

Note the thoughts expressed by the sentences in the paragraph 
just cited. 

Addison had a fault. 

Fond of admirers. 

These men inferior to him. 

Their faults did not escape his observation. 

At the same time he was charitable. 

The kind of charity he showed. 

How he behaved towards them. 

How they behaved towards him. 

This did not turn his head. 

But he couldn't avoid contracting some of their faults. 

A paragraph must possess unity ; that is, all the clauses 
and sentences in the paragraph should bear directly on the 
main thought. If a paragraph possesses unity, it is possible 
to sum up all the ideas expressed therein in one sentence, 
which may be called a topic sentence. 

The second sentence may be taken as the topic sentence. Note 
how each sentence has some connection with the main thought ex- 
pressed in the paragraph. 

A paragraph must also possess coherence ; that is, all 
the parts of the paragraph, and of the sentences that com- 
pose it, should be closely and properly joined together. 

Note how each sentence leads into the next. There is no awkward 
break in thought as you move from one sentence to the one that 
follows it. Note that the words that introduce the sentences are 
chiefly pronouns and conjunctions. 



140 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

It is sometimes hard to tell the difference between unity 
and coherence. It may help you, if you consider unity to 
deal with the thought, the idea expressed by the sentence 
or the paragraph ; and coherence to deal with the connec- 
tion between one part of the thought and another. Unity 
involves selection and rejection of points ; coherence 
involves arrangement and organization of points. 

The paragraph would possess unity even if proper names were 
used in place of pronouns, or if the conjunctions were omitted. But 
the paragraph would be incoherent because it would not be properly 
joined together. It would give the impression of being rather a 
group of separate sentences without very close connection one with 
another. 

A third thing to be careful about in the construction of 
a paragraph is to see that the emphasis is rightly placed ; 
that is, to see that all the parts are properly placed and 
properly proportioned. 

Note the order that the writer follows. He wants us to feel that 
Addison was somewhat harmed by his association with inferior men. 
He prepares us to feel this in the first sentence, but he doesn't tell 
us what the fault is ; rather, he arouses our curiosity. In the body 
of the paragraph he presents the situation, tells us what friends 
Addison gathered around him, how they behaved toward him, how 
he behaved toward them, and thus gives us the reason for the state- 
ment he makes in the last sentence. If he had put the last sentence 
first, our interest, instead of being maintained throughout, would 
have been somewhat weakened toward the end of the paragraph. 
We would have gotten the idea he wanted to convey sooner, but it 
would not have been as complete an idea as the one we get from 
the paragraph as it is. 



THE PARAGRAPH 



LESSON II 



141 



What is the main thought expressed in each of the follow- 
ing exercises? 

1. A young bachelor sheriff was instructed to serve an attach- 
ment against a beautiful young widow. He accordingly called upon 
her and said that he had an attachment for her. The widow blushed 
and said that his attachment was reciprocated. The young sheriff 
was somewhat embarrassed, but tried to explain things by saying 
that she must proceed to court. To this she replied that although 
it was leap year, she much preferred to have him do the courting. 
In desperation he cried out that it was no time for trifling, that the 
justice was waiting. 

"The justice," she answered softly, "I much prefer a parson." 

2. The shadow, wheresoever it passes, leaves no track behind 
it ; and of the greatest personages of the world, when they are once 
dead, then there remains no more than if they had never lived. 
How many preceding emperors of the Assyrian monarchy were 
lords of the world as well as Alexander ! and now we remain not only 
ignorant of their monuments, but know not so much as their names. 
And of the same great Alexander, what have we at this day except 
the vain noise of his fame ? Jeremy Taylor 

3. We sometimes see a change of expression in our companion, 
and say, his father or his mother comes to the windows of his eyes, 
and sometimes a remote relative. In different hours, a man repre- 
sents each of several of his ancestors, as if there were seven or eight 
of us rolled up in each man's skin, — seven or eight ancestors at 
least, — and they constitute the variety of notes for that new piece 
of music which his life is. Emerson 

4. On a hot day one would like to imitate the mode of life of the 
native of Sierra Leone, as nobody has described it. Stroll into the 
market in natural costume ; buy a watermelon for a halfpenny, 
split it, and scoop out the middle ; sit down in one half of the empty 
rind, clap the other to one's head, and feast upon the pulp. Holmes 

5. Men love better books which please them than those which 
instruct. Since their ennui troubles them more than their ignorance, 
they prefer being amused to being informed. Dubois 



142 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Pick out the topic sentence in each of the following 
paragraphs. 

i. To be of no church is dangerous. Religion, of which the 
rewards are distant, and which is animated only by faith and hope, 
will glide by degrees out of the mind, unless it be invigorated and 
reimpressed by external ordinances, by stated calls to worship, and 
the salutary influence of example. 

JDr. Johnson 

2. There is one way by which a strolling player may be ever 
secure of success ; that is, in our theatrical way of expressing it, to 
make a great deal of the character. To speak and act as in common 
life is not playing, nor is it what people come to see ; natural speak- 
ing, like sweet wine, runs glibly over the palate, and scarcely leaves 
any taste behind it ; but being high in a part resembles vinegar, 
which grates upon the taste, and one feels it while he is drinking. 

Goldsmith 

3. Dress has a moral effect upon the conduct of mankind. Let 
any gentleman find himself with dirty boots, old surtout, soiled 
neckcloth, and a general negligence of dress, he will, in all proba- 
bility, find a corresponding disposition by negligence of address. 

Barrington 

4. There is a kind of grandeur and respect which the meanest 
and most insignificant part of mankind endeavor to procure in the 
little circle of their friends and acquaintance. The poorest mechanic, 
nay, the man who lives upon common alms, gets him his set of ad- 
mirers, and delights in that superiority which he enjoys over those 
who are in some respects beneath him. This ambition, which is 
natural to the soul of man, might, methinks, receive a very happy 
turn ; and, if it were rightly directed, contribute as much to a person's 
advantage, as it generally does to his uneasiness and disquiet. 

Addison 

5. There is no more potent antidote to low sensuality than the 
adoration of the beautiful. All the higher arts of design are essen- 
tially chaste without respect to the object. They purify the thoughts 
as tragedy purifies the passions. Their accidental effects are not 
worth consideration, — there are souls to whom even a vestal is not 
holy. Schlegel 



THE PARAGRAPH 143 

In the following exercises note whether the sentences or 
paragraphs possess unity and coherence, and whether the 
emphasis is properly placed. If you think everything is 
as it should be, discuss fully why you think so ; if not, 
discuss fully why not. In the case of the latter, reconstruct 
the exercise so that it will possess unity and coherence, 
and will have the emphasis properly placed. If topic 
sentences are lacking, supply them. 

1. John Lee is dead, that good old man, I 
We never shall see him more ; 

He used to wear, an old drab coat, 
All buttoned down before. 

2. Wherever literature consoles sorrow or assuages pain, — wher- 
ever it brings gladness to eyes which fail with wakefulness and tears 
and ache for the dark house and the long sleep, — there is exhibited 
in its noblest form, the immortal influence of Athens. Macaulay 

3. In the center of the room was a table seating ten people with 
round legs. 

4. He was the meanest cur existing with a single pair of legs. 
And instinct, a word we all clearly understand, going largely on 
four legs, and reason always on two, meanness on four legs never 
attained the perfection of meanness on two. Dickens 

5. But all God's angels come to us disguised : 
Sorrow and sickness, poverty and death, 
One after other lift their frowning masks, 
And we behold the Seraph's face beneath, 
All radiant with the glory and the calm 

Of having looked upon the front of God. Lowell 

LESSON III 

Reading exercise. The following selection is part of a 
chapter from R. D. Blackmore's (1825-1900) Lorna 
Doone. This novel is a beautiful love story, sentimental 
in parts and exciting in others, which tells how John Ridd, 



144 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

a powerful young giant, met, loved, and finally won Lorna, 
the beautiful ward of the outlawed Doones. 

Now, what did I do but take my chance, reckless whether any 
one heeded me or not, only craving Lorna's heed, and time for ten 
words to her. I strode right away, in good trust of my speed, with- 
out any more misgivings ; but resolved to face the worst of it, and 
try to be home for supper. 

And first I went, I know not why, to the crest of the broken high- 
land, whence I had agreed to watch for any mark or signal. And, 
sure enough, at last I saw that the white stone had been covered 
over with a cloth or mantle, the sign that something had arisen to 
make Lorna want me. For a moment I stood amazed at my evil 
fortune ; that I should be too late in the very thing of all things 
on which my heart was set ! 

Then, nothing could stop me; it was not long, although to me 
it seemed an age, before I stood in the niche of rock at the head of 
the slippery water-course, and gazed into the quiet glen, where my 
foolish heart was dwelling. Notwithstanding doubts of right, not- 
withstanding sense of duty, and despite all manly striving, and great 
love of my home, there my heart was ever dwelling, knowing what 
a fool it was, and content to know it. 

At last a little figure came, not insignificant, but looking very 
light and slender in the moving shadows, gently here and softly there, 
as if vague of purposes, with a gloss of tender movement, in and out 
the wealth of trees, and liberty of the meadow. Who was I to crouch, 
or doubt, or look at her from a distance ; what matter if they killed 
me now, and one tear came to bury me ? Therefore I rushed out at 
once, as if shot-guns were unknown yet ; not from any real courage, 
but from prisoned love burst forth. 

I know not whether my own Lorna was afraid of what I looked, or 
what I might say to her, or of her own thoughts of me ; all I know 
is that she looked frightened when I hoped for gladness. Perhaps 
the power of my joy was more than maiden liked to own, or in any 
way to answer to. Therefore I went slowly toward her, taken back 
in my impulse ; and said all I could come to say, with some distress 
in doing it. 

"Mistress Lorna, I had hope that you were in need of me." 




LORNA DOONE — WONTNER 



THE PARAGRAPH 145 

"Oh, yes; but that was long ago; two months ago, or more, 
sir." And saying this she looked away, as if it all were over. But 
I was now so dazed and frightened that it took my breath away, 
and I could not answer, feeling sure that I was robbed and some one 
else had won her. And I tried to turn away, without another word, 
and go. 

But I could not help one stupid sob, though mad with myself 
for allowing it, but it came too sharp for pride to stay it, and it told 
a world of things. Lorna heard it, and ran to me, with her bright 
eyes full of wonder, pity, and great kindness, as if amazed that I 
had more than a simple liking for her. Then she held out both 
hands to me, and I took and looked at them. 

"Master Ridd, I did not mean," she whispered, very softly — "I 
did not mean to vex you." 

"If you would be loath to vex me, none else in this world can do 
it," I answered, out of my great love, but fearing yet to look at her, 
mine eyes not being strong enough. 

"Come away from this bright place," she answered, trembling in 
her turn; "I am watched and spied of late. Come beneath the 
shadows, John." 

She stole across the silent grass; but I strode hotly after her; 
fear was all beyond- me now, except the fear of losing her. She led 
me to her own rich bower, which I told of once before ; and if in 
spring it were a sight, what was it in summer glory? But although 
my mind had notice of its fairness and its wonder, not a heed my heart 
took of it. All that in my presence dwelt, all that in my heart was 
felt, was the maiden moving gently, and afraid to look at me. 

For now the power of my love was abiding on her, new to her, 
unknown to her; not a thing to speak about, nor even to think 
clearly ; only just to feel and wonder, with a pain of sweetness. 

After long or short — I know not, ere I yet began to think or 
wish for any answer — Lorna slowly raised her eyelids, with a gleam 
of dew below them, and looked at me doubtfully. Any look with 
so much in it never met my gaze before. 

"Darling, do you love me?" was all that I could say to her. 

"Yes, I like you very much," she answered, with her eyes 
gone from me, and her dark hair falling over, so as not to show me 
things. 



146 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

"But do you love me, Lorna, Lorna; do you love me more than 
all the world?" 

"No, to be sure not. Now why should I?" 

"In truth, I know not why you should. Only I hoped that you 
did, Lorna. Either love not at all, or as I love you, forever." 

"John, I love you very much ; and I would not grieve you. You 
are the bravest, and the kindest, and the simplest of all men — I 
like you very much, and I think of you almost every day." 

"That will not do for me, Lorna. Not almost every day I think, 
but every instant of my life, of you. For you I would give up my 
life, and hope of life beyond it. Do you love me so?" 

"Not by any means," said Lorna; "no; I like you very much 
when you do not talk so wildly ; and I like to see you come as if you 
would fill our valley up, and I like to think that even Carver would 
be nothing in your hands — but as to liking you like that, what 
should make it likely? especially when I have made the signal, and 
for some two months or more you have never even answered it ! 
If you like me so ferociously, why do you leave me for other people 
to do just as they like with me?" 

"To do as they like ! Oh, Lorna, not to make you marry Carver ? " 

"No, Master Ridd, be not frightened so ; it makes me fear to look 
at you." 

"But you have not married Carver yet? Say quick! Why keep 
me waiting so?" 

"Of course I have not, Master Ridd. Should I be here if I had, 
think you, and allowing you to like me so, and to hold my hand, 
and make me laugh, as I declare you almost do sometimes? And 
at other times you frighten me." 

"Did they want you to marry Carver ? Tell me all the truth of it." 

"Not yet, not yet. I am only just seventeen, you know, and 
who is to think of marrying ! But they wanted me to give my word, 
and be formally betrothed to him in the presence of my grandfather. 
It seems that something frightened them. They wanted me to 
promise, and even to swear a solemn oath that I would wed my 
eldest cousin, this same Carver Doone, who is twice as old as I am, 
being thirty-five and upward. That was why I gave the token that 
I wished to see you, Master Ridd. Then both he and his crafty 
father were for using force with me ; but Sir Ensor would not hear 



THE PARAGRAPH 147 

of it, and they have put off that extreme until he shall be past its 
knowledge, or at least beyond preventing it. And now I am watched, 
and spied, and followed, and half my little liberty seems to be taken 
from me." 

Tears of sorrow and reproach were lurking in her soft dark eyes, 
until in fewest words I told her that my seeming negligence was 
nothing but my bitter loss and wretched absence far away, of which 
I had so vainly striven to give any tidings without danger to her. 
When she heard all this, and saw what I had brought from London, 
a ring of pearls with a sapphire in the midst of them, she let the 
gentle tears flow fast, and came and sat so close beside me, that I 
trembled like a folded sheep at the bleating of her lamb. But, re- 
covering comfort quickly, without more ado I raised her left hand, 
and then, before she could say a word, or guess what I was up to, on 
her ringer was my ring — sapphire for the veins of blue, and pearls 
to match white fingers. 

"Oh, you crafty Master Ridd!" said Lorna, looking up at me, 
and blushing now a far brighter blush, "I thought that you were 
much too simple ever to do this sort of thing. No wonder you can 
catch the fish, as when first I saw you." 

"Have I caught you, little fish? Or must all my life be spent in 
hopeless angling for you?" 

"Neither one nor the other, John ! You have not caught me yet 
altogether, though I like you dearly, John ; and if you will only 
keep away,T shall like you more and more. As for hopeless angling, 
John, that all others shall have until I tell you otherwise." 

With the large tears in her eyes — tears which seemed to me to 
rise partly from her want to love me with the power of my love — 
she put her pure bright lips, half smiling, half prone to reply to 
tears, against my forehead lined with trouble, doubt, and eager 
longing. And then she drew my ring from off that snowy twig her 
finger, and held it out to me ; and then, seeing how my face was 
falling, thrice she touched it with her lips, and sweetly gave it back 
to me. "John, I dare not take it now; else I should be cheating 
you. I will try to love you dearly, even as you deserve and wish. 
Keep it for me just till then. Something tells me I shall earn it in 
a very little time. Perhaps you will be sorry then, sorry when it is 
all too late, to be loved by such as I am." 



148 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

What could I do, at her mournful tone, but kiss a thousand times 
the hand which she put up to warn me, and vow that I would rather 
die with one assurance of her love, than without it live forever with 
all beside that the world could give ? 

Upon that she laughed at me, in the sweetest manner, and I knew, 
as well as if she herself had told me, by some knowledge, I knew quite 
well, while all my heart was burning hot within me, and mine eyes 
were shy of hers, and her eyes were shy of mine ; for certain and for- 
ever this I knew — as in a glory — that Lorna Doone had now begun 
and would go on to love me. 

LESSON IV 

Write a theme on one of the subjects given below. The 
only thing you can call on to help you in developing it is 
your imagination. Let your fancy fly as far and as free 
as it wants to, but try to write something at least as reason- 
able as Alice in Wonderland or one of Grimm's Fairy 
Tales. 

i. Tom Sawyer visits the young Prince of Wales. 

2. Hunting jabberwocks. 

3. The coral palace under the sea. 

4. The express to Mars. 

5. My invention. 

6. What I would do with a million dollars. 

7. From boot-black to banker. 

8. How I would go about it to improve conditions in my home 
town. 

9. The draft-horses' union. 

10. Choose your own subject, but let it be something that you 
can develop only by calling on your imagination. 



THE PARAGRAPH 149 

LESSON V 

Penmanship, dictation, or memorizing exercise. 

Very often you come across a poem that is hard to under- 
stand. You can feel that it is beautiful, you like the 
movement and the sound, but you cannot grasp the full 
meaning unless it is explained to you. This is because 
poets so very frequently use figurative language, or present 
symbols rather than actual objects. Poets usually see, in 
a certain phenomenon, a great deal more than an ordinary 
mortal sees. They mark not only its existence, but its 
significance as well. 

The lines that follow furnish a good example of a poem 
that needs a little explanation before it can be fully under- 
stood and appreciated. The sunsets from a number of 
towns in Essex County, Massachusetts, are unusually 
gorgeous. It has been suggested that perhaps they are 
due to the fact that the atmosphere through which they 
gleam is full of particles of soot and smoke from the mills 
of Lawrence, Lowell, and other cities and towns in the 
vicinity. The thought that lowly men, toiling in lurid 
boiler-rooms, are responsible, without their knowing it, 
for the beautiful burst of many colored lights that gleam 
when the sun is going to rest, — all for other people who 
are able to be out to watch it, — moved the one who wrote 
"Service." 

SERVICE 

A dozen soulless, sightless men, 

A dozen yawning pits of fire ! 

Hell yearning through the dark again 

With unappeasable desire ! 

A dozen fires that shift and swim 



150 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

With dizzy madness in the heat ; 
Before — above — behind — the dim 
Dead light and desperate darkness meet. 
They only feed each ghastly grate, 
Their bodies maimed and souls afraid ; 
They never see by what strange fate 
They build the thing that others trade. 
No echo of the ponderous power, 
Nor of the dithyrambic surge, 
Where wheel and piston, hour on hour 
In vast orchestral music merge, 
Shall stir these dozen men to feel 
The whirling grandeur and the might 
Of man's new-graven gods of steel. 
Upon their all unseeing sight 
Is only darkness, and the dread 
Of that swift madness, and the death 
That burns the body of the dead. 
Only the inward burning breath, 
Only the fear, the flame, and then 
A smoky passage to the goal ! 
Strange are the paths that give to men 
The sweet, swift voyage of the soul. 
And strange for them to drift and dream, 
On sunkissed mountain peaks to fly, 
And fair it is to glance and gleam 
With rare rich colors of the sky. 

At evening time, at evening time, 

Above a dreaming jasper world, 

The Lord has touched the clouds they climb, 

And, ere the darkness is unfurled, 

Has given each smoke-stained soul to wear 

A shining colour of his own ; 

And over these exceeding fair, 

Drifts the still shadow of His throne. 

Raymond Fairchild Beardsley 



CHAPTER XXI 
UNITY 

LESSON I 

Unity. Unity demands that in every paragraph there 
shall be one central thought or master idea. All phrases, 
clauses, and sentences in the paragraph should therefore 
have such a definite and reasonable connection with the 
central thought that it can be expressed in a single sum- 
marizing sentence — the topic sentence. 

It is a good plan to have a topic sentence either at the 
beginning or at the end of a paragraph. In constructing 
one, therefore, . it is wise first to write out a topic sentence, 
and then to add to it other sentences which explain it, or 
which bear directly on it. You must know from the 
start what you are going to write about ; so you will prob- 
ably find it necessary to make an outline, selecting the 
points you need and discarding those you do not. When 
the paragraph is finished, you can tell whether the topic 
sentence had better come at the beginning, as an introduc- 
tion, or at the close, as a summary. Then examine every 
sentence carefully to see if it has a definite and reasonable 
connection with the master idea expressed in the topic 
sentence. 

To preserve unity in a paragraph, you must be careful 
to keep the same point of view throughout. If you are 
telling about a sail, and are on the boat, you must tell only 

151 



152 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

of those things which you could see or hear or do while 
on the boat. If you are putting your story into the mouth 
of an old man, you must never let him forget himself and 
turn into a young man. If you are standing outside of a 
house and are telling us what it looks like, you must not 
forget and go inside and tell us what the living-room looks 
like. If you are going to change your point of view, you 
had better begin a new paragraph ; but give your reader 
fair warning before you make any change. 

In striving to secure unity do not make the mistake that 
so many beginners do, of starting a new paragraph for every 
important sentence. Do not also make the mistake that 
so many older writers do, of grouping into a single para- 
graph sentences which express thoughts that are not closely 
related, — many of which are only digressions from the 
master idea. 

The first line of every paragraph should be indented; 
that is, it must start about half an inch or more to the 
right of the rest of the lines in the paragraph. 

LESSON II 

Examine carefully the following selections. Point out 
those that possess unity and those that do not, explaining 
in each case why you make the decision as you do. Pick 
out, if possible, the topic sentences in the different para- 
graphs that contain them. Are there any selections in 
which you can combine paragraphs? Are there any in 
which unity could be better preserved by breaking them 
up into more than one paragraph? 

i. It is not to taste sweet things, but to do noble and true things, 
and vindicate himself under God's heaven as a God-made man, that 



UNITY 153 

the poorest son of Adam dimly longs. Show him the way of doing 
that, the dullest day-drudge kindles into a hero. They wrong man 
greatly who say he is not to be seduced by ease. Difficulty, abnega- 
tion, martyrdom, death, are the allurements that act on the heart 
of man. Kindle the inner genial life of him, you have a flame that 
burns up all lower considerations. Carlyle 

2. "Pigs are very queer animals. The pig has his uses. Our 
dog don't like pigs. His name is Nero. There was a wicked king 
named Nero. I like good men. Men have a great many uses which 
I can't stop to tell. This is all I can think of about the pig." 

3. I would rather have a young fellow too much than too little 
dressed. The excess on that side will wear off, with a little age and 
reflection ; but if he is negligent at twenty, he will be a sloven at 
forty, and stink at fifty. 

Dress yourself fine where others are fine, and plain where others 
are plain ; but take care always that your clothes are well made 
and fit you, for otherwise they will give you a very awkward air. 

Chesterfield 

4. "My friends, are you ready for the question? Will you cut 
bait or go ashore ? Remember, Rome was not built in a day ! These 
are the times that try men's souls. Are you prepared to strike for 
your altars and your fires ? What do you think of the Monroe doc- 
trine? Where are the snows of yesteryear? Do you hold these 
truths to be self-evident? Thrice armed is he that hath his quarrel 
just. We must not forget that a straight line is the shortest distance 
between two points. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud? 
To be or not to be? That is the question." 

5. The little I have seen of the world teaches me to look upon 
the errors of others in sorrow, not in anger. When I take the history 
of one poor heart that has sinned and suffered, and represent to 
myself the struggles and temptations it has passed through, the 
brief pulsations of joy, the feverish inquietude of hope and fear, the 
pressure of want, the desertion of friends, I would fain leave the 
erring soul of my fellowman with Him from whose hand it came. 

Longfellow 

6. Cease to brag to me of America and its model institutions and 
constitutions. America, too, will have to strain its energies, crack 
its sinews, and all but break its heart, as the rest of us have had to 



154 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

do, in thousand-fold wrestle with the Pythons and Mud-Demons, 
before it can become a habitation for the gods. Carlyle 

7. " Lovely creature, I feel myself ashamed and completely 
circumscribed in addressin' of you, for you are a nice girl and nothhV 
but it. Afore I see you, I thought all women was alike, but now I 
find what a regular soft-headed, inkred'lous turnip I must ha' been ; 
for there ain't nobody like you, though I like you better than nothing 
at all. So I take the privilege of the day, Mary, my dear, — as the 
gentleman in difficulties did when he walked out of a Sunday, — to 
tell you that the first and only time I see you, your likeness was 
took on my heart in much quicker time and brighter colors than 
ever a likeness was took by the profeel macheen (which p'raps you 
may have heard on Mary my dear) altho it does finish a portrait 
and put the frame and glass on complete, with a hook at the end 
to hang it up by, and all in two minutes and a quarter. Except of 
me Mary my dear as your walentine and think over what I've said. 
My dear Mary I will now conclude." Dickens, Pickwick Papers 

(Correct the spelling if it is necessary in any place.) 

8. Guizot, when he was in exile, asked Mr. Lowell, when he was 
our minister in London, how long the American union would exist, 
and Lowell said to him : "It will exist so long as the men of America 
hold to the fundamental principles of their fathers." Central in 
these fundamental principles is the determination of fathers and 
of children that in each day of life the world shall be a better world ; 
that is, in each day of life a man shall live to the glory of God. 

Edward Everett Hale 

9. The melancholy days have come, the corn is in the shock, 
Beautiful Evelyn Hope is dead, so row me to Inchcape rock. 
Up from the South at break of dawn, quoth the Raven, "Never- 
more," 

While a woman sat in unwomanly rags, on a stern and rock- 
bound shore. 

Lars Porsena of Clusium, when all the trees were green, 
For Bonnie Annie Laurie was born to blush unseen 
By Nebo's lonely mountain. Across the sands of Dee, 
A voice fell like a falling star, — "To be or not to be !" 

10. It is almost a definition of a gentleman to say he is one who 



UNITY 155 

never inflicts pain. He is mainly occupied in merely removing the 
obstacles which hinder the free and unembarrassed action of those 
about him ; and he concurs with their movements rather than takes 
the initiative himself. His benefits may be considered as parallel 
to what are called comforts or conveniences in arrangement of a 
personal nature : like an easy chair or a. good fire, which do their 
part in dispelling fatigue and cold, though nature provides both 
means, of rest and animal heat without them. The true gentleman 
in like manner carefully avoids whatever may cause a jar or a jolt 
in the minds of those with whom he is cast ; his great concern being 
to make everyone at their ease and at home. He has his eyes on 
all his company; he is tender towards the bashful, gentle towards 
the distant, and merciful towards the absurd ; he can recollect 
to whom he is speaking ; he guards against unseasonable allusions, 
or topics which may irritate ; he is seldom prominent in conversa- 
tion, and never wearisome. He makes light of favors while he does 
them, and seems to be receiving when he is conferring. He is patient, 
forbearing, and resigned ; he submits to pain because it is inevitable, 
to bereavement because it is irreparable, and to death because it is 
his destiny. If he engages in controversy of any kind, his disciplined 
intellect preserves him from the blundering discourtesy of better, 
psrhaps, but less educated minds. He may be right or wrong in 
his opinion, but he is too clear-headed to be unjust. If he be an 
unbeliever, he will be too profound and large-minded to ridicule 
religion or to act against it. He respects piety and devotion; he 
even supports institutions as venerable, beautiful, or useful, to 
which he does not assent ; he honors the ministers of religion, and it 
contents him to decline its mysteries without assailing or denouncing 
them. John, Cardinal Newman 

LESSON III 

Written composition. Take any two of the sentences 
given below, use them as topic sentences, and develop 
them into paragraphs of about one hundred words each. 
Then see whether these sentences are more effective used 
at the beginning or at the end of the paragraphs you have 



156 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

constructed. Remember what has been said about point 

of view. 

1. A doctor is one who kills you today to prevent your dying 
tomorrow. 

2. Don't find fault with what you don't understand. 

3. An upright minister asks what recommends a man; a corrupt 
minister, who. 

4. When one has not what one likes, one must like what one has. 

5. And Gareth bowed himself 

With all obedience to the king, and wrought 
All kinds of service with a noble ease 
That graced the lowliest act in doing it. 

6. Hope is an egg of which one may get the yolk, another the 
white, and a third the shell. 

7. There are some men whose enemies are to be pitied much, and 
whose friends more. 

8. One cannot drink and whistle at the same time. 

9. Have a care of whom you talk, 
To whom and what and where. 

10. When a man has no mind of his own, his wife usually gives 
him a piece of hers. 

LESSON IV 

Oral composition. It is not every day that you are 
called on to make formal speeches, — though you should 
know how to make them. The talking you do the greater 
part of the time is in the form of conversation or discussion : 
" A " makes some remarks on a certain subject, " B " 
joins in, " C " has something to add, and — likely as not 
— you also say a word. You and your friends do not 
assume a stilted air when you speak informally; you do 
not necessarily rise from your seats ; you merely say 
something because you are interested in the subject ; 
you contribute a little to the general store of information. 



UNITY 157 

Even in these everyday conversations and discussions, 
however, you should always try to avoid vagueness of 
thought and laxity of speech. 

In an ordinary conversation, when " B " follows "A," 
he does not start to talk about something entirely removed 
from " A's " subject. He tries to carry on the same 
thought, to present some new phases of it that " A " has 
failed to take up, to amplify one that he has, or to tell 
" A " that he has been mistaken in certain statements 
he has made. " B " has to be very careful not only to 
have what he himself says coherent, but he must be careful 
also to show that there is a definite and logical thought 
connection between what " A " has said and what he is 
saying, and that this connection is clearly expressed. 
" C " must be sure that he follows " B " logically, and 
you that you follow " C " logically. If you wish to go 
back to something " A " or " B " has said, you may do 
so ; but you must be very careful not to make the transi- 
tion from " C's " speech to yours abrupt or rude. 

In the exercises which follow you will find several sub- 
jects for discussion. Under each there are a number of 
sub-topics any one or more of which might be taken up by 
some one especially interested in that phase or those 
phases of the question. If the teacher should assign for 
preparation any one of these main groups, you should 
consider the subject as a whole, and come to class prepared 
to talk for two or three minutes on any one feature of the 
topic. 

At the beginning of the hour the teacher can announce 
the order in which the students may speak; they may 
stand or keep their seats as the teacher may direct. The 
first one should introduce the subject, touch on various 



158 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



phases of it, and prepare the way for the rest of the class. 
The second speaker should take up the discussion and, 
without making an awkward or abrupt transition, go on 
to give more light on the subject. 



i. The Best Way to Spend 


a Summer Vacation. 


a. At the seashore 


b. In the mountains 


c. Camping 


d. Cruising 


e. Traveling 


/. Working 


g. Etc. 




2. The Reading I Enjoy Most. 


f i. Narrative 




a. Poetry I 2. Lyric 




1 3- Etc. 




r 1. Serious 




b. Drama < 2. Light 




I 3. Etc. 




/ 1. Historical 






2. Adventure 




c. Fiction < 


3. Romance 

4. Problem 
1 5- Etc. 




d. Essays 




e. Etc. 




3. Politics. 


1 


a. Tariff 


b. Parties 


c. Taxes 


d. Government ownership 


e. Foreign alliances 


/. The pork-barrel 


g. Pensions 




h. Conscription 



4. The Kind of School I Like to Attend. 
a. Large b. Small 

c. Day d. Boarding 

e. Coeducational /. Etc. 

5. The Profession I Am Most Interested In. 
a. Medicine b. Law 

c. Nursing d. Business 



UNITY 



iS9 



7- 



e. Ministry 
g. Politics 
i. Teaching 
*. Etc. 


h. 

i- 


Manufacturing 

Journalism 

Army 


School Activities. 
a. Athletics 
c. Musical clubs 
e. Dramatic club 
g. Student council 


b. 
d. 
/• 


Literary societies 
Religious organizations 
School publications 
Social life 


My Favorite Amusement. 
a. Moving-pictures b. 
c. Dancing - d. 
e. Reading /. 


The theater 

Athletics 

Music 



School Questions. 

a. Working one's way through school 

b. Faculty relations with students 

c. Dormitory supervision 

d. Fraternities and Sororities 

e. Firearms 

/. School spies 

g. The school fire company 

h. Military training 

The Study I Enjoy Most. 



a. Science 

c. Modern languages 

e. Ancient languages 

^Esthetics. 


b. 
d. 


Mathematics 
History 
Manual training 


a. Art . 
c. Drama 
e. Dreams 


b. 

d. 


Music 

Sunsets 

Room decorations 



CHAPTER XXII 
COHERENCE 

LESSON I 

Coherence. Coherence in a sentence or paragraph de- 
mands that all the parts shall be firmly held together. In 
a paragraph every sentence must grow naturally out of 
the one which precedes it and lead naturally to the one 
which follows it. There must be a logical thought con- 
nection between them, and a clear expression of that 
connection. 

To secure coherence in a sentence or paragraph, you will 
find it a help to pay strict attention to the following points. 

i. Order. In telling a story follow the time order. 
Don't jump from morning to evening and then back to 
afternoon. In describing a scene, follow the logical or 
common-sense order. Lay the thing out before your 
reader as it is laid out before your eyes. In explaining a 
complicated piece of machinery, make your reader under- 
stand how the thing works. Proceed with things in a 
logical way, from known to unknown, from what your 
reader understands to what he doesn't understand. 

2. Grammatical form. If you are careful, you ought not 
to have much trouble in writing sentences or paragraphs 
which from the standpoint of grammar are complete and 
coherent. But you and other writers and speakers are 

1 60 



COHERENCE 



161 



liable sometimes to slip up on verbs. Try to avoid jump- 
ing indiscriminately from the active to the passive voice ; 
as in a sentence like this: ." The bear had been seen by 
him and he shot it." Try also to be consistent in your 
use of tenses. Do not mix up the historical present with 
the past; e.g. " James came into the room and saw John 
sitting at his desk. John turns to him and says, ' Hello ! ? " 
3. Connectives. In the transition from one sentence to 
another, or from one paragraph to another, see to it that 
there is a real connection between the one you leave and 
the one you are going to. If you need to use a connecting 
or linking word, see to it that you use the one that ex- 
presses the exact shade of meaning you wish to convey. 
As the advertisers of certain breakfast-foods and cleaning- 
powders advise, do not be satisfied with a connective that 
is " just as good." In the use of connectives, too, bear 
in mind that it sounds better if you do not repeat the same 
word too often. The following lists of connectives are 
given to help you to avoid repetition, and also to help you 
to use the one that gives the exact idea you wish to express. 



AND Group 


BUT Group 


THEREFORE 
Group 


THEN 

Group 


too 


yet 


consequently 


presently 


also 


still 


accordingly 


meanwhile 


likewise 


nevertheless 


thus 


thereupon 


besides 


however 


then 


eventually 


furthermore 


for all that 


so 


to conclude 


moreover 


on the contrary 


hence 


thereafter 


in addition to this 


at the same time 


as a result 


incidentally 


in like manner 


on the other hand 


as a consequence 


to crown all 


in such circum- 








stances 









1 62 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



LESSON II 



Examine the following selections carefully and note 
whether they are coherent or incoherent. Discuss fully 
whether they are firmly held together, whether the sen- 
tences grow naturally out of those which precede them 
and lead up naturally to those that follow. Note whether 
there is a logical thought connection, and whether that 
thought connection is well expressed. Tell what order (time, 
logical, known to unknown) is followed in the various 
selections. Point out the words used as connectives be- 
tween sentences and paragraphs. 

i. If you write a better book or preach a better sermon or build 
a better mouse-trap than your neighbor, though you build your 
house in the woods, the world will make a beaten path to your door. 

2. It is good policy to strike while the iron is hot ; it is still better 
to adopt Cromwell's procedure, and make the iron hot by striking. 
The master-spirit who can rule the storm is great, but he is much 
greater who can both raise and rule it. 

3. Like a morning dream, life becomes more and more bright the 
longer we live ; and the reason for everything appears more clear. 
What has puzzled us before seems less mysterious, and the crooked 
paths look straighter as we approach the end. Richter 

4. I know of no two things more needed in American life today 
than thrift and reverence. If the American people were as thrifty as 
the Scotch or the French, this country would soon be so far ahead of 
all others in wealth and commercial importance that there would not 
be any comparison. Our national resources are so great that we 
are getting rich in spite of the fact that we are a nation of spenders ; 
but if we are to take the lead in the future, we must teach and prac- 
tice thrift. 

There is also great need for the teaching of a spirit of reverence. 
There is practically nothing reverenced in America, except, perhaps, 
the name of Abraham Lincoln. We need more reverence for au- 
thority, for age, for law, for truth, for God. In a word, I believe 



COHERENCE 163 

we need more of the moral and ethical element in education, even 
if the circumstances of the case compel us to keep religion out of it. 

David R. Forgan 

What is the force of also, the third word in the second 

paragraph ? 

• 

5„ Notwithstanding all the expedition he had used, however, the 
gate had been closed a good half hour when he reached it, and by 
the time he had discovered Mr. Perker's laundress, who lived with a 
married daughter, who had bestowed her hand upon a non-resident 
waiter, who occupied the back-room of some number in some street 
closely adjoining to some brewery somewhere behind Gray's Inn 
Lane, it was within fifteen minutes of closing the prison for the night. 

Dickens, " Pickwick Papers " 

Break this up into two or three sentences. 

6. When Israels, the Dutch artist, paints a picture of a fisherman, 
seated in the desolation of his grief beside the dead body of his wife, 
how does he stir our emotion? Partly, it is true, by the figures. 
He depicts an expression of hopeless loneliness on the man's face and 
in the stolid droop of his figure, and contrasts with these the straight, 
thin form beneath the -sheet and the white, pinched, yet peaceful 
face upon the pillow. But the artist has done much more. He also 
has invested the figures with an atmosphere that helps to interpret 
the sentiment of the subject. He has rendered the light, as it struggles 
in through the little window, the cold white light of early morning. 
It glances on the faces and figures and illuminates portions of the 
room, while other parts are dim with silvery shadows. The light 
stirs in our imagination a feeling of chill and hardness, mingled with 
a certain tenderness, and a suggestion of the mystery that surrounds 
life and death. Had the artist omitted this envelope of lighted 
atmosphere around the figures, his picture would have lost more 
than half its expression and power to move us. 

Charles H. Coffin 

What order is followed? What is the strongest impres- 
sion left? 



1 64 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

7. "Heads, heads — take care of your heads ! " cried the loquacious 
stranger, as they came out under the low archway. "Terrible place 
— dangerous work — other day — five children — mother — tall 
lady, eating sandwiches — forgot the arch — crash — knock — chil- 
dren look around — mother's head off — sandwich in her hand — no 
mouth to put it in — head of a family off — shocking, shocking !" 

Dickens, " Pickwick Papers " 

Supply the proper connectives to make it read smoothly. 

8. THE HEATHEN CHINEE 

Which I wish to remark — 

And my language is plain — 
That for ways that are dark, 

And for tricks that are vain, 
The heathen Chinee is peculiar, 

Which the same I would rise to explain. 

Ah Sin was his name, 

And I shall not deny 
In regard to the same 

What that name might imply ; 
But his smile it was pensive and childlike, 

As I frequent remarked to Bill Nye. 

It was August the third, 

And quite soft was the skies ; 
Which it might be inferred 

That Ah Sin was likewise ; 
Yet he played it that day upon William 

And me in a way I despise. 

Which we had a small game, 

And Ah Sin took a hand ; 
It was euchre — the same 

He did not understand ; 
But he smiled as he sat by the table 

With the smile that was childlike and bland. 



COHERENCE 165 

Yet the cards they were stocked 

In a way that I grieve, 
And my feelings were shocked 

At the state of Nye's sleeve, 
Which was stuffed full of aces and bowers, 

And the same with intent to deceive. 

But the hands that were played 

By that heathen Chinee, 
And the points that he made 

Were quite frightful to see, 
Till at last he put down a right bower, 

Which the same Nye had dealt unto me. 

Then I looked up at Nye, 

And he gazed upon me ; 
And he rose with a sigh, 

And said, "Can this be? 
We are ruined by Chinese cheap labor " ; 

And he went for that heathen Chinee. 

In the scene that ensued 

I did not take a hand, 
But the floor it was strewed 

Like the leaves on the strand 
With the cards that Ah Sin had been hiding 

In the game "he did not understand." 

In his sleeves, which were long, 

He had twenty-four packs, 
Which was coming it strong, 

Yet I state but the facts ; 
And we found on his nails, which were taper, 

What is frequent in tapers — that's wax. 

Which is why I remark — 

And my language is plain — 
That for ways that are dark, 

And for tricks that are vain, 



1 66 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

The heathen Chinee is peculiar, 

Which the same I am free to maintain. 

Bret Harte 

Re-tell the above in prose, using the proper connec- 
tives. 

9. There are a venturous few among us who presume to see 
among the souls that have been knit with ours and that now, per- 
chance, await us in the flowery fields of Paradise, members of species 
other than our own. We dream of the wag of a feathery tail among 
the asphodels, the gleam of brown eyes that were faithful unto 
death ; we hear again the purring of a furry comrade who went forth 
from the warmth of our hearthstone into the night. And, for me, 
in that complete reunion, there must be a familiar rush of wings 
and a clear bird hail from the branches of the tree of life. 

Atlantic Monthly ^ 

This is the first paragraph of a short essay. What is 
it to deal with ? How do you know ? 

10. Oct. 13th, 1660. I went out to Charing Cross, to see Major- 
General Harrison hanged, drawn, and quartered ; which was done 
there, he looking as cheerful as any man could do in that condition. 
He was presently cut down, and his head and heart shown to the 
people, at which there was great shouts of joy. It is said that he 
said that he was sure to come shortly at the right hand of Christ to 
judge them that now had judged him ; and that his wife do expect 
his coming again. Thus it was my chance to see the King beheaded 
at Whitehall, and to see the first blood shed in revenge for the King 
at Charing Cross. " Diary of Samuel Pepys " 

How could you make this more coherent? 



COHERENCE 167 

LESSON III 

i. Re-write, in coherent form, any one of the incoherent 
passages given in Lesson II. 

2. Write a paragraph using at least four of the connec- 
tives listed in Lesson I. 

LESSON IV 

Take one of the general subjects given in Lesson IV of 
Chapter XXI, and be prepared to discuss it in class. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
EMPHASIS 

LESSON I 

Emphasis. In a sentence and in a paragraph certain 
words and certain thoughts are more important than 
others. To give them the proper emphasis you must 
put them in their proper places. You learned in Lesson I 
of Chapter XVI that the most emphatic positions in a 
sentence are at the beginning and at the end. The same 
thing holds true in a paragraph. 

In a complex sentence the main idea should be expressed 
in the main clause, and the subordinate idea in the subor- 
dinate clause. If the departure of a man at sunrise is the 
idea you wish to emphasize, you should put that in the 
main clause. 

When the sun was rising, he departed. NOT When he departed, 
the sun was rising. 

In a compound sentence all the clauses are presumably 
of equal value, but the last one is usually the most emphatic. 
If then you wish to emphasize an idea, you should generally 
put it in the last clause. This rule, however, is not ab- 
solute ; quite frequently your judgment and your common 
sense will direct you to do differently. Compare these two 
sentences. 

i. The star was shining, and it shone upon his grave. 
2. The star was upon his grave, and it was shining. 

168 



EMPHASIS 169 

No definite rule can be laid down as to the order in 
which you should present your ideas in a paragraph. Gen- 
erally speaking it is safe to have the first sentence fairly 
strong ; the body of the paragraph explaining or amplify- 
ing what you wish to advance ; and the last sentence the 
most emphatic, summing up what you have said, and leav- 
ing a clear and complete idea in the reader's mind. But 
here again your judgment and your common sense may 
direct you to do differently. 

There is another thing you must consider in constructing 
a sentence or a paragraph with a view to placing emphasis 
where it should be placed. What has been said up to this 
point has dealt only with the position of the thought in 
the sentence or paragraph. You must also take care to. 
give the right amount of space or number of words to the 
thought or thoughts you bring out in your sentences and 
paragraphs. That is, you must pay attention to propor- 
tion quite as much as to position. 

An unimportant detail should not in a short theme, or 
in a long one for that matter, be given as much space as 
one which is of vital importance. If you are to tell in 
two hundred words what you did when you went hunting, 
you should not take up half the words telling how you 
prepared for it the night before you started. If you are 
describing the appearance of the state capitol, you should 
not give so much space to the walks leading up to it, that 
you have to cut short what you want to tell us about the 
building itself. If you are explaining the principles of a 
game of football, you should not spend too much time 
telling what fun it is ; you should not give up an entire 
paragraph to shoulder-pads and shoe-cleats, and leave 
only one sentence for touchdowns. 



170 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON II 

i. "If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign 
troop was landed in my country, I would never lay down my arms, 
Never ! Never ! Never ! ' ' 

What would be the effect if the sentence read : 

"I would never lay down my arms while a foreign troop was 
landed in my country, if I were an American as I am an Englishman. " 

Discuss fully why it is stronger as it is. 

2. Avoid law-suits beyond all things. They influence your 
conscience, impair your health, and dissipate your property. 

La Bruybre 

Comment on the force of the words influence, impair, 
and dissipate. 

3. The poorest man may, in his cottage, bid defiance to all the 
force of the Crown. It may be frail, its roof may shake ; the wind 
may blow through it ; the storms may enter, — the rain may enter, 
— but the King of England may not enter ; all his forces dare not 
cross the threshold of the ruined tenement. William Pitt 

Arrange the clauses in the order of their strength. 

4. In the absence of a clergyman, President Elihu Root opened 
the session of the constitutional convention today with a prayer. 

"Almighty God," he prayed, "we pray thee to guide our delibera- 
tions this day. Make us humble, sincere, devoted to the public 
service. Make us wise, considerate of the feelings and the opinions 
and the rights of others. Make us effective and useful for the ad- 
vancement of thy cause of peace and justice and liberty in this 
world." 

Note the steps in the prayer. In the first sentence he 
has in mind those who are assembled before him ; in the 
last, the world. Discuss fully whether the other two 
sentences progress as they should. 



EMPHASIS 171 

5. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have 
not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. 
And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, 
and all knowledge ; and though I have all faith, so that I could re- 
move mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. And though 
I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I give my body 
to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing. 

Charity suffereth long, and is kind ; charity envieth not ; charity 
vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself unseemly, 
seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil; re- 
joiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth ; beareth all things, 
believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things. Charity 
never faileth ; but whether there be prophecies, they shall fail ; 
whether there be tongues, they shall cease; whether there be knowl- 
edge, it shall vanish away. 

For we know in part, and we prophesy in part. But when that 
which is perfect is come, then that which is in part shall be done 
away. When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a 
child, I thought as a child ; but when I became a man, I put away 
childish things. For now we see through a glass, darkly ; but then 
face to face : now I know in part ; but then shall I know even as also 
I am known. And now abideth f&ith, hope, charity, these three; 
but the greatest of these is charity. 

What are the leading thoughts in the three paragraphs? 
What positions do they occupy in the paragraphs? 

Re-arrange the sentences or paragraphs in the following 
exercises so that you may get a complete idea, or a con- 
secutive story. 

1. The discussion and the dinner ended at about the same time. 

At the Thousand Islands, at dinner one day, Daniel W. Powers 
and his friends were discussing the merits of different species of 
game. 

"Well, Massa Powers, to tell you the trufe, almost any kind of 
game'll suit me, but what I likes best is an American Eagle served on 
a silver dollar.' ' 



172 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

One preferred canvas-back ducks, another woodcock, and still 
another thought a quail the most delicious article of food. 

"Well, Frank," said Dan, turning to the waiter at his elbow, who 
was as good a listener as he was a waiter, "what kind of game do you 
like best?" 

2. And there lay the rider distorted and pale, 

With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail : 
And the tents were all silent — the banners alone — 
The lances unlifted — the trumpets unblown. 

For the angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed ; 
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, 
And their hearts but once heaved, and forever grew still ! 

The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 

And there lay the steed with his nostrils all wide, 
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride ; 
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf, 
And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf. 

And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail, 
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; 
And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword, 
Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord ! 

Like the leaves of the forest when Summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen : 
Like the leaves of the forest when Autumn hath blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strewn. 

3. The parallel sticks secured them and their horses from falling 
over the stage ; and the emperor was so much delighted that he 
ordered this entertainment to be repeated several days, and once 
was pleased to be lifted up, and give the word of command ; and 
with great difficulty persuaded even the empress herself to let me 



EMPHASIS 173 

hold her in her close chair within two yards of the stage, from whence 
she was able to take a full view of the whole performance. 

I had the good fortune to divert the emperor one day after a very 
extraordinary manner. I desired he would order several sticks of 
two feet high, and the thickness of an ordinary cane, to be brought 
me ; whereupon his majesty commanded the master of his woods 
to give directions accordingly; and the next morning six woodmen 
arrived, with as many carriages, drawn by eight horses to each. 

It was by good fortune that no ill accident happened in these 
entertainments ; only once a fiery horse, that belonged to one of 
the captains, pawing with his hoof, struck a hole in my handkerchief, 
and his foot slipping, he overthrew his rider and himself. 

I took nine of these sticks, and fixing them firmly in the ground 
in a quadrangular figure, two feet and a half square, I took four 
other sticks and tied them parallel at each corner, about two feet 
from the ground ; then I fastened my handkerchief to the nine sticks 
that stood erect ; and extended it on all sides, till it was tight as the 
top of a drum ; and the four parallel sticks, rising about five inches 
higher than the handkerchief, served as ledges on each side. 

The horse that fell was strained in the left shoulder, but the rider 
got no hurt ; and I repaired my handkerchief as well as I could : 
however, I would not trust to the strength of it any more, in such 
dangerous enterprises. 

As soon as they got in order, they divided into two parties, per- 
formed mock skirmishes, discharged blunt arrows, drew their swords, 
fled and pursued, attacked and retired, and, in short, discovered the 
best military discipline I ever beheld. 

But I immediately relieved them both, and covering the hole 
with one hand, I set down the troop with the other, in the same 
manner as I took them up. 

When I had finished my work, I desired the emperor to let a troop 
of his best horse, twenty-four in number, come and exercise upon 
this plain. His majesty approved of the proposal, and I took them 
up, one by one, in my hands, ready mounted and armed, with the 
proper officers to exercise them. 

4. In this second encounter, the Templar aimed at the centre of 
his antagonist's shield, and struck it so fair and forcibly, that his 
spear went to shivers, and the Disinherited Knight reeled in his 



174 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

saddle. On the other hand, that champion had, in the beginning 
of his career, directed the point of his lance towards Bois-Guilbert's 
shield, but, changing his aim almost in the moment of encounter, he 
addressed it to the helmet, a mark more difficult to hit, but which, 
if attained, rendered the shock more irresistible. Fair and true he 
hit the Norman on the visor, where his lance's point kept hold of the 
bars. Yet, even at this disadvantage, the Templar sustained his 
high reputation ; and had not the girths of his saddle burst, he might 
not have been unhorsed. As it chanced, however, saddle, horse, and 
man, rolled on the ground under a cloud of dust. 

Ralph de Vipont summed up the list of the stranger's triumphs, 
being hurled to the ground with such force, that the blood gushed 
from his nose and his mouth, and he was borne senseless from the 
lists. 

A few minutes pause having been allowed, that the combatants 
and their horses might recover breath, Prince John with his truncheon 
signed to the trumpets to sound the onset. The champions a second 
time sprung from their stations, and closed in the centre of the lists, 
with the same speed, the same dexterity, the same violence, but not 
the same equal fortune as before. 

More and angrier words would have been exchanged, but the 
marshals, crossing their lances betwixt them, compelled them to 
separate. The Disinherited Knight returned to his first station, 
and Bois-Guilbert to his tent, where he remained for the rest of the 
day in an agony of despair. 

(f no 

The gigantic Front-de-Bceuf, armed in sable armour, then took the 
field. He bore on a white shield a black bull's head, half defaced by 
the numerous encounters which he had undergone, and bearing the 
arrogant motto, Cave f adsum. Over this champion the Disinherited 
Knight obtained a slight but decisive advantage. Both Knights 
broke their lances fairly, but Front-de-Bceuf, who lost a stirrup in 
the encounter, was adjudged to have the disadvantage. 

The acclamations of thousands applauded the unanimous award 
of the Prince and marshals, announcing that day's honours to the 
Disinherited Knight. 

In the stranger's third encounter, with Sir Philip Malvoisin, he 
was equally successful ; striking that baron so forcibly on the casque, 



EMPHASIS 175 

that the laces of the helmet broke, and Malvoisin, only saved from 
falling by being unhelmeted, was declared vanquished like his com- 
panions. 

(11 7-) 

"We shall meet again, I trust,'' said the Templar, casting a re- 
sentful glance at his antagonist; "and where there are none to 
separate us." 

"If we do not," said the Disinherited Knight, "the fault shall 
not be mine. On foot or horseback, with spear, with axe, or with 
sword, I am alike ready to encounter thee." 

(f-2.) 

The trumpets had no sooner given the signal, than the champions 
vanished from their posts with the speed of lightning, and closed in 
the centre of the lists with the shock of a thunderbolt. The lances 
burst into shivers up to the very grasp, and it seemed at the moment 
that both knights had fallen, for the shock had made each horse recoil 
backwards upon its haunches. The address of the riders recovered 
their steeds by use of the bridle and spur; and having glared on 
each other for an instant with eyes which seemed to flash fire 
through the bars of their visors, each made a demivolte, and, retir- 
ing to the extremity of the lists, received a fresh lance from the at- 
tendants. 

Without alighting from his horse, the conqueror called for a bowl 
of wine, and opening the beaver, or lower part of his helmet, an- 
nounced that he quaffed it, "To all true English hearts, and to the 
confusion of foreign tyrants." He then commanded his trumpet to 
sound a defiance to the challengers, and desired a herald to announce 
to them, that he should make no election, but was willing to encounter 
them in the order in which they pleased to advance against him. 

In his fourth combat with De Grantmesnil, the Disinherited 
Knight shewed as much courtesy as he had hitherto evinced courage 
and dexterity. De GrantmesniPs horse, which was young and 
violent, reared and plunged in the course of the career so as to dis- 
turb the rider's aim, and the stranger, declining to take the advan- 
tage which this accident afforded him, raised his lance and passing 
his antagonist without touching him, wheeled his horse and rode 
back again to his own end of the lists, offering his antagonist, by a 
herald, the chance of a second encounter. This De Grantmesnil 



176 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

declined, avowing himself vanquished as much by the courtesy 4s 
by the address of his opponent. 

A loud shout from the spectators, waving of scarfs and hand- 
kerchiefs, and general acclamations, attested the interest taken by 
the spectators in this encounter ; the most equal, as well as the best 
performed, which had graced the day. But no sooner had the knights 
resumed their station, than the clamour of applause was hushed into 
a silence, so deep and so dead, that it seemed the multitude were 
afraid even to breathe. 

To extricate himself from the stirrups and fallen steed, was to 
the Templar scarce the work of a moment ; and, stung with mad- 
ness, both at his disgrace and at the acclamations with which it 
was hailed by the spectators, he drew his sword and waved it in de- 
fiance of his conqueror. The Disinherited Knight sprung from his 
steed, and also unsheathed his sword. The marshals of the field, 
however, spurred their horses between them, and reminded them, 
that the laws of the tournament did not, on the present occasion, 
permit this species of encounter. 

When the two champions stood opposed to each other at the 
two extremities of the lists, the public expectation was strained to 
the highest pitch. Few augured the possibility that the encounter 
could terminate well for the Disinherited Knight, yet his courage 
and gallantry secured the general good wishes of the spectators. 

LESSON III 

Exercises in oral composition. You must have some 
definite person in mind as you speak. 

1. Apologize for having broken a window. 

2. Try to sell a poster ; tickets for an entertainment ; a bicycle. 

3. Ask permission to be absent from class. 

4. Ask to be excused for not having prepared your lesson. 

5. Canvass the class for Red Cross subscriptions ; watch-charms 
for a successful team. 

6. Make a speech urging your classmates to come out and work 
for a certain team. 

7. Explain why you cannot contribute to a subscription. 



EMPHASIS 177 

8. Introduce a speaker to a literary society. 

9. Apply to the teacher for employment as a tutor ; as a janitor. 
10. Make a speech on some feature of the school life which you 

would like to have changed. 

LESSON IV 

Write an advertisement and an editorial for your school 
or local paper. In writing the latter, discuss some point 
that was brought up for discussion under Exercise 10 in 
the previous lesson. 



N 



CHAPTER XXIV 
FORMS OF DISCOURSE 

LESSON I 

Forms of discourse. There are four main forms of 
discourse : narration, which tells a story or recounts some 
historical event ; description, which brings a thing before 
us in such a way that we can perceive what it is like with 
some one of our senses ; exposition, which is practically 
the same thing as explanation ; and argumentation, which 
presents certain phases of a question to us in such a way 
that we are moved to form a certain definite opinion about 
it. 

Narration might be compared to a stream, in that it 
involves motion. If a body of water does not flow, it is 
a bay or a lake or a sea — it is not a stream. If the char- 
acters in a narrative do not move, the form of discourse 
ceases to be narration and becomes something else. 

Leclerc landed. Cristophe took two thousand white men, women, 
and children, and carried them to the mountains for safety, then with 
his own hands set fire to the splendid palace which French architects 
had just finished for him, and in forty hours the place was in ashes. 
The battle was fought in its streets, and the French driven back to 
their boats. Wherever they went they were met with fire and sword. 
Once, resisting an attack, the blacks, Frenchmen born, shouted the 
Marseilles Hymn, and the French stood still; they could not fight 
the Marseillaise. And it was not till their officers sabred them on 
that they advanced, and then they were beaten. 

178 



FORMS OF DISCOURSE 179 

This is from " Toussaint's Last Struggles for Hayti " 
by Wendell Phillips (1811-1884). Notice that the story 
does not stop at any point. Every sentence tells of some- 
thing that was done. 

In description no action is necessary; it must simply 
present something to us in such a way that we can see it 
or smell it or feel it or hear it. If an artist paints a pic- 
ture, we look at it and see what the artist saw ; there is no 
motion involved in the picture. Sometimes we see pic- 
tures that represent battles or storms. We know there 
was action, but in' the pictures there is none. We may 
have action, as — for example — in the description of a 
moving train; but there the emphasis must be placed 
not on what is done, but on what it looks like or sounds 
like. That is, the thing we are interested in is not the 
action, but the impression that is perceived by our 
senses. 

It was a lodge of ample size, 

But strange of structure and device ; 

Of such materials as around 

The workman's hand had readiest found. 

Lopped of their boughs, their hoar trunks bared, 

And by the hatchet rudely squared, 

To give the walls their destined height, 

The sturdy oak and ash unite ; 

While moss and clay and leaves combined 

To fence each crevice from the wind. 

The lighter pine-trees overhead 

Their slender length for rafters spread, 

And withered heath and rushes dry 

Supplied a russet canopy. 

Due westward, fronting to the green, 

A rural portico was seen, 

Aloft on native pillars borne, 



180 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Of mountain fir with bark unshorn, 
Where Ellen's hand had taught to twine 
The ivy and Idaean vine, 
The clematis, the favored flower 
Which boasts the name of virgin-bower, 
And every hardy plant could bear 
Loch Katrine's keen and searching air. 

In this selection from Sir Walter Scott's " The Lady of 
the Lake " no story is told; all the author wanted us to 
do was to see what the lodge looked like. In the sixth 
line from the end (" Where Ellen's hand, etc.") we note 
a little action — Ellen twined ivy and other vines over 
the portico. But the emphasis is not on what Ellen did, 
but on how the portico looked. 

As description tries to make us perceive something with 
some one of our senses, exposition tries to make us perceive 
something with our minds. Description tries to make us 
see ; exposition tries to make us understand. 

There are many good things from which I might have derived good, 
by which I have not profited, I dare say, Christmas among the rest. 
But I am sure I have always thought of Christmas time, when it has 
come round, — apart from the veneration due to its sacred origin, 
if anything belonging to it can be apart from that, — as a good time ; 
a kind, forgiving, charitable, pleasant time ; the only time I know of, 
in the long calendar of the year, when men and women seem by one 
consent to open their shut hearts freely, and to think of people below 
them as if they really were fellow-travellers to the grave, and not 
another race of creatures bound on other journeys. And therefore, 
uncle, though it has never put a scrap of gold or silver in my pocket, 
I believe that it has done me good, and will do me good ; and I say, 
God bless it ! 

This paragraph is from Dickens's " Christmas Carol." 
Dickens here does not tell a story ; he does not give us a 



FORMS OF DISCOURSE 181 

picture of anything. But he does make us understand 
how Scrooge's nephew felt about Christmas. 

" Argumentation is the art of producing in the mind of 
another person, acceptance of ideas held true by a writer 
or speaker, and of inducing the other person, if necessary, 
to act in consequence of his acquired belief. The chief 
things to be desired in argumentation are power to think 
clearly, and power so to present one's thought as to be 
both convincing and persuasive." * 

Gentlemen, I want you to suppose a case for a moment. Suppose 
that all the property you were worth was in gold, and you had put it 
in the hands of Blondin, the famous rope-walker, to carry across the 
Niagara Falls on a tight rope. Would you shake the rope while he 
was passing over it, or keep shouting to him, " Blondin, stoop a little 
more! Go a little faster!" No, I am sure you would not. You 
would hold your breath as well as your tongue, and keep your hand 
off until he was safely over. Now, the government is in the same 
situation. It is carrying an immense weight across a stormy ocean. 
Untold treasures are in its hands. It is doing the best it can. Don't 
badger it ! Just keep still, and it will get you safely over. 

Abraham Lincoln 

The important thought expressed in this paragraph is 
what is contained in the last six sentences. The first part, 
which somewhat resembles narration in that it tells some- 
thing of a story, and also resembles description in that we 
can see a picture of Blondin going across Niagara, is not 
put in to detract our attention from the main thought, 
but to impress the main thought upon us all the more 
strongly. 

1 Baker and Huntington, "Principles of Argumentation." 



182 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



LESSON II 



Examine the following selections and tell under what 
form of discourse you would classify them. In the case 
of those that contain more than one paragraph, examine 
the paragraphs separately. 

i. It is not possible to found a lasting power upon injustice, per- 
jury, and treachery. These may, perhaps, succeed for once, and 
borrow for a while, from hope, a gay and flourishing appearance. 
But time betrays their weakness, and they fall into ruin of themselves. 
For, as in structures of every kind, the lower parts should have the 
greatest firmness — so the grounds and principles of actions should be 
just and true. Demosthenes 

2. Then Twashtri (Vulcan), perplexed, fell into a profound medita- 
tion. He roused himself to do as follows : 

He took the lightness of the leaf and the glance of the faun, the 
gayety of the sun's rays and the tears of the mist, the inconstancy of 
the wind and the timidity of the hare, the vanity of the peacock and 
the softness of the down upon the throat of the swallow, the hardness 
of the diamond, the sweet flavor of honey, the cruelty of the tiger, 
the warmth of fire, the chill of snow, the chatter of the jay and the 
cooing of the turtle dove. — He melted all this and formed a woman. 

Hindoo 

3. That person has achieved success who has lived well, laughed 
often, and loved much; who has gained the respect of intelligent 
men and the love of little children ; who has filled his niche and ac- 
complished his task ; who has left the world better than he found it, 
whether by an improved poppy, a perfect poem, or a rescued soul; 
who has never lacked appreciation of earth's beauty, or failed to ex- 
press it ; who has always looked for the best in others and given the 
best he had; whose life was an inspiration, whose memory a bene- 
diction. Mrs. A. J. Stanley 

4. When Mr. Taft calls the college yell " barbaric " he strikes a blow 
at a cherished product of higher education. No more forceful means 
of collegiate expression'has yet been discovered. In its development 
poetry and music have gone hand in hand ; genius has done its part. 



FORMS OF DISCOURSE 183 

The college yell is the almost perfect adaptation of sound to lack of 
sense. 

Authorities hold that the perfect yell is based on the bray of the 
Missouri mule, alternating with the notes of the game rooster, modi- 
fied by the trumpet motive of the automobile horn. War whoops 
and the sound of a keg of nails falling down the cellar stairs furnish 
an impressive crescendo, while the most effective farewell is a cross 
between the song of a dying calf and the wail of a lost soul. These 
finer shadings are lost on the fat man who has no ear for music. But 
they do express the deeper emotions of a freshman turned loose on a 
civilized community. 

a The college yell is the sweetest music in the world to me! " ex- 
claimed a New England college president in his inaugural address a 
few weeks ago. Thus speaks a soul attuned to the higher melody, 
one who can enjoy and understand the music of the megaphone. 

Baltimore Sun 

5. Gambling is a vice which is productive of every possible evil, 
equally injurious to the morals and health of its votaries. It is the 
child of avarice, the brother of iniquity, and the father of mischief. 
It has been the ruin of many worthy families, the loss of many a man's 
honor, and the cause of suicide. To all those who enter the lists, it 
is equally fascinating. The successful gamester pushes his good 
fortune, till it is overtaken by a reverse. The losing gamester, in 
hopes of retrieving past misfortunes, goes on from bad to worse, till, 
grown desperate, he pushes at everything and loses his all. In a 
word, few gain by this abominable practice, while thousands are in- 
jured. George Washington 

6. Mr. Benjamin Allen was a coarse, stout, thick-set young man, 
with black hair cut rather short, and a white face cut rather long. He 
was embellished with spectacles, and wore a white neckerchief. Be- 
low his single-breasted black surtout, which was buttoned up to his 
chin, appeared the usual number of pepper-and-salt colored legs, 
terminating in a pair of imperfectly polished boots. Although his 
coat was short in the sleeves, it disclosed no vestige of a linen wrist- 
band ; and although there was quite enough of his face to admit of 
the encroachment of a shirt collar, it was not graced by the smallest 
approach to that appendage. He presented, altogether, rather a 
mildewy appearance, and emitted a fragrant odour of full-flavored 
Cubas. Dickens j " Pickwick Papers " 



1 84 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

7. It is not good to speak evil of all whom we know bad; it is 
worse to judge evil of any who may prove good. To speak ill upon 
knowledge shows a want of charity ; to speak ill upon suspicion shows 
a want of honesty. I will not speak so bad as I know of many ; I will 
not speak worse than I know of any. To know evil of others and 
not speak it, is sometimes discretion ; to speak evil of others and not 
know it, is always dishonesty. He may be evil himself who speaks 
good of others upon knowledge, but he can never be good himself who 
speaks evil of others upon suspicion. 

Arthur Warwick 

8. VIT.E LAMPADA 

There's a breathless hush in the close to-night, 
Ten to make and the match to win. 
A bumping pitch and a blinding light, 
An hour to play and the last man in. 
And it's not for the sake of a ribboned coat 
Or the selfish hope of a season's fame. 
But his captain's hand on his shoulder smote, 
Play up ! Play up ! and play the game ! 

The sand of the desert is sodden red, 

Red with the wreck of a square that broke. 

The gatling's jammed and the Colonel dead, 

And the regiment blind with dust and smoke. 

The river of death has brimmed its banks, 

And England's far and honor a name. 

But the voice of a school-boy rallies the ranks. 

Play up ! Play up ! and play the game ! 

This is the word that year by year, 
While in her place the school is set, 
Every one of her sons shall hear, 
And none that hear it dare forget. 
This they all with a joyful mind, 
Bear through life like a torch in flame, 
And falling, fling to the host behind, 
Play up ! Play up ! and play the game ! 

Henry Newboit 



FORMS OF DISCOURSE 185 

9. It was while I lay helpless in a lonely tavern by the riverside that 
the crushing blow fell. Letters from home, sent on from Pittsburg, 
told me that Elizabeth was to be married. A cavalry officer who was 
in charge of the border police, a dashing fellow and a good soldier, 
had won her heart. The wedding was to be in the summer. It was 
then the last week in April. At the thought I turned my face to the 
wall, and hoped that I might die. 

But one does not die of love at twenty-four. The days that passed 
slowly saw me leave my sick-bed and limp down to the river on sunny 
days, to sit and watch the stream listlessly for hours, hoping nothing, 
grasping nothing, except that it was all over. In all my misadventures 
that was the one thing I had never dreamed of. If I did, I as quickly 
banished the thought as preposterous. That she should be another's 
bride seemed so utterly impossible that, sick and feeble as I was, I 
laughed it to scorn even then; whereat I fell to reading the fatal 
letter again, and trying to grasp its meaning. It made it all only 
the more perplexing that I should not know who he was, or what he 
was. I had never heard of him before, in that town where I thought 
I knew every living soul. That he must be a noble fellow I knew, or 
he could not have won her ; but who — why — what — what had 
come over everything in such a short time, and what was this ugly 
dream that was setting my brain awhirl and shutting out the sunlight 
and the day? Presently I was in a relapse, and it was all darkness 
to me, and oblivion. 

Jacob A. Riis, " The Making of an American " 

10. Gentlemen of the jury — The best friend a man has in this world 
may turn against him and become his enemy. His son or daughter, 
that he has reared with loving care, may prove ungrateful. Those 
who are nearest and dearest to him, those whom he trusts with his 
happiness and his good name, may become traitors to their faith. 
The money that a man has he may lose ; it flies away from him perhaps 
when he needs it most. A man's reputation may be sacrificed in a 
moment of ill-considered action. The people who are prone to fall 
on their knees to do him honor when success is with him, may be the 
first to throw the stone of malice when failure settles its cloud upon 
his head. The one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in 
this selfish world, the one that never deserts him, the one that never 
proves ungrateful or treacherous, is his dog. 



186 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Gentlemen of the jury, a man's dog stands by him in prosperity 
and in poverty, in health and in sickness. He will sleep on the cold 
ground, where the wintry winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, 
if only he can be near his master's side. He will kiss the hand that 
has no food to offer, he will lick the wounds and sores that come in 
encounter with the roughness of the world. He guards the sleep of 
his pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends 
desert, he remains. When riches take wings and reputations fall to 
pieces, he is constant in his love as the sun in its journey through the 
heavens. If fortune drives the master forth, an outcast in the world, 
friendless and homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than 
that of accompanying to guard against danger, to fight against his 
enemies. And when the last scene of all comes, and death takes his 
master in its embrace, and his body is laid away in the cold ground, 
no matter if all other friends pursue their way, there by his graveside 
will the noble dog be found,- his head between his paws, his eyes sad 
but open in alert watchfulness, faithful and true even in death. 

Senator G. G. Vest 

LESSON III 

Choose from the list of general subjects for compositions, 
given in the appendix, one narrative, one descriptive, one 
expository, and one argumentative subject, and come to 
class prepared to make short speeches — each about a 
minute long — on all of them. 

LESSON IV 

Choose from this same list four more subjects each repre- 
senting one of the four forms of discourse, and write short 
themes, each of about one hundred words, on all of them. 
If you wish, write a letter containing four paragraphs, 
each about one hundred words long, and each representing 
one of the four forms of discourse. 






CHAPTER XXV 
HOW TO WRITE A THEME 

LESSON I 

Writing themes. The first thing to do when you start 
out to write a theme is — unless your teacher has already 
given you one — to pick out your subject. Laurence 
Sterne (17 13-1768) says in his Sentimental Journey, " I 
pity the man who can travel from Dan to Beersheba and 
say ' 'Tis all barren ' ; and so it is : and so is all the world 
to him who will not cultivate the fruits it offers." There 
are all sorts of subjects lying around waiting to be de- 
veloped. The reason why we sometimes experience diffi- 
culty in finding subjects to write on is that our horizon is 
limited. We can get much more pleasure out of life if 
we keep our eyes and hearts open, and observe and feel 
what is going on about us in our own community and in 
the big world outside. 

Theme subjects may be of many kinds ; it may be con- 
venient, in beginning to write, to confine yourself to theme 
subjects of three kinds. 1. Subjects suggested by your 
experience or your observation. 2. Subjects suggested 
by your imagination. 3. Subjects suggested by your 
reading. But these should not satisfy you. You must 
not be afraid to introduce personal and dramatic elements. 
Oftentimes it is wise to take a point of view other than 

187 



1 88 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

your own, or to develop a story from one point of view 
and then from an entirely different one. If you are to 
write with a definite purpose in mind, be sure that you 
understand your purpose and define it clearly and care- 
fully. It is excellent practice to write a theme with one 
purpose in mind, and then another with a purpose entirely 
the opposite. 

Having chosen the general subject on which you wish 
to write, you should proceed to limit it — to decide what 
phases of the subject you can take up and develop in the 
space you have at your disposal. You cannot drive a 
motor car on a bicycle path ; you cannot build a palace 
on a small lot. In the same way you cannot develop a 
large subject like " The Panama Canal " in a one-page theme. 
You must take up some small division of the big general 
subject, such as " A Steam Shovel " or " A Landslide," which 
in a one-page theme you can discuss fully enough to give 
your reader a complete picture or idea. Try to work up 
a real interest in your subject ; for if you are not interested 
yourself, the chances are pretty good you will not be able 
to interest any one else. 

The next thing to do is to jot down on a piece of paper, 
without any thought as to the order in which they may 
come, any ideas that may occur to you about your sub- 
ject. In writing them out it is a good plan to put down 
definite details rather than general statements. For in- 
stance, instead of putting down the note " school has 
changed," note in what respects the school has changed. 
(Recitation periods have been lengthened, three new in- 
structors have been added to the faculty, everybody is 
obliged to take some form of exercise every day.) In- 
stead of saying " I am having a good time," note in what 



HOW TO WRITE A THEME 189 

ways you are having a good time. (I knew my lesson, 
our team won, we went to the theater last night.) In 
this brief list of notes try also to use exact words to repre- 
sent actions or motions, colors, sounds, odors, textures, 
etc. ; it will be very helpful to you when you come to 
make your outline and to write your theme. 

When you have put down everything that you can 
think of, look over the list and cut out anything irrelevant ; 
that is, anything that does not bear directly on your sub- 
ject. Then arrange the points in coherent order. If you 
are writing a narrative, see to it that you follow the time 
order ; if you are writing an exposition, that you follow 
the logical order, that is, that you proceed from what is 
known to what is unknown ; if you are writing a descrip- 
tion, that you keep the same point of view throughout, 
or if you have to change it, that you make some mention 
of the fact. (See Lesson I of Chapter XXI.) 

In selecting the points you are to use and in arranging 
them, try to remember what has been said about emphasis : 
that it depends on position and proportion. (Important 
details should generally be put at the beginning or at 
the end of sentences or paragraphs ; unimportant details 
should not be given as much space as important ones.) 

When everything is coherently arranged, you will have 
a helpful outline. It is a good plan then, to take a few 
long breaths, and, following your outline, to write out the 
first copy of your theme without stopping. You know 
how it is when you are taking a long walk. If you begin 
to get a little tired and stop to rest for a few minutes, your 
muscles begin to stiffen, and, after you start again, it is a 
good ten or fifteen minutes before you once more get into 
the swinging stride with which you started out.. In writ- 



igo THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

ing, you go through much the same experience. If, while 
you are writing off your first copy, you stop to rest a little 
while when you get a bit tired, or strike a snag, it will take 
you some time before you can get going again. It is 
better to write the whole thing out without stopping. 

When you are through doing this, you will be tired ; or 
at least you ought to be. So put the thing aside and rest 
yourself by doing something else. Later, take it up again, 
look it over carefully, and make any corrections that may 
be necessary. Look for mistakes in spelling and punctua- 
tion ; note your sentence structure, — see to it that all 
your sentences express a complete thought, and that by 
the use of proper connectives you have linked them to- 
gether coherently. Be sure that you have chosen the 
right words, the ones that give the exact meaning you 
wish to convey. See to it that the theme as a whole be- 
gins smoothly and does not end abruptly, and that it 
gives a complete and satisfactory account or picture. 
Give it a fitting title, then copy it off neatly and legibly. 
Read it over once more to make sure that no errors have 
crept in while you were copying it, and then consider it 
finished. 

You may approve of the suggestions given in this chap- 
ter, but may have fears that to follow them out would 
take more time than you could afford to give to your 
themes. Be assured that this is not the case. If you are 
anxious to write a decent theme, you will find that the 
shortest way to go about it is to follow the suggestions given. 

It is good mental exercise to try to accomplish a certain 
task in a certain specified time. A theme of about 200 
words should not take more than one hour to write if you 
follow the time schedule given below. 



HOW TO WRITE A THEME 191 

15 minutes for jotting down and arranging your notes. 

10 minutes for your first copy. 

15 minutes for correction and revision. 

15 minutes for your final copy. 

5 minutes for extra attention on any of the above. 

LESSONS II AND III 

[The author recommends that the class spend two lessons on the 
exercises that follow. For Lesson II the students could read over all 
the exercises, pick out the subjects they are asked to, limit them, and 
select the one they are to use as a theme subject. For Lesson III 
they could read over the exercises again, jot down the points they are 
to use in developing their subject, arrange them in order, write their 
first and their final copy, and hand it in, with their notes and their 
original copy.] 

Selecting a Subject 

If you were asked to look out of the window nearest 
you and pick out five subjects for a theme based on your 
observation, you might select the following : 

1. A broken window-pane; it suggests — "A snow-ball fight." 
2. A patch of grass ; it suggests — "How to keep a lawn in good con- 
dition and appearance." 3. A bed of flowers, — "How to plant and 
take care of a garden." 4. A trolley-car, — "An incident occurring 
on a trolley car." 5. A bird's nest, — "All I know about my favorite 
bird." 

Pick out five other objects and tell what subjects for a 
theme they suggest. 

If you were asked to look back over the past week and 
pick out any five incidents that may have impressed you, 
or experiences you may have had, you might select the 
following : 



1 92 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

i. The accident that suffered, where and how it happened, 

and its results. 2. The morning assembly exercises or "chapel," 
at our school. 3. An interesting, or moving, or thrilling reel I saw 
at the moving-picture theater. 4. A call on my friend at the hospital ; 
what I learned from him about how a hospital is run. 5. The church 
social. 

Pick out five other subjects based on your experiences 
of the past week. 

If you were asked to pick out five subjects for a theme 
suggested by your imagination, you might select the follow- 
ing: 

1. A dream. 2. What I would most like to be; why and how. 
3. What I would do if I were as small as a fly. 4. Alone in the house 
at night. 5. Around the world in twenty days. 

Pick out five other subjects suggested by your imagination. 

When it comes to selecting subjects suggested by your 
reading, you must be very careful. Unless your teacher 
particularly tells you to do so, you should not merely re- 
tell in your own words an incident, or give a description 
or a character-sketch found in the book. If you do that, 
you do not get any exercise in constructing a composition, 
— the ideas and the order in which they are arranged are 
already furnished you. But the reading of a book may 
suggest subjects for a theme. 

Treasure Island might suggest " Hunting for treasure in 

River " ; Ivanhoe, " The combat between two thugs " or " An 
English house in the thirteenth century," or " Captured and locked 

in 's room " ; Robinson Crusoe, " How I built a hut in the woods " ; 

Oliver Twist, " A day at the town poor-farm " ; The Merchant of 
Venice, " My visit to the local court-house." 

Pick out subjects suggested by your reading of five other 
books. 



HOW TO WRITE A THEME 193 

Limiting the Subject 

Suppose that out of the fifteen or more subjects already- 
thought of, we select five. 

1. All I know about my favorite bird. 2. An interesting reel. 
3. My visit to the hospital. 4. An English house of the thirteenth 
century. 5. A day at the town poor-farm. 

It is obvious that it would be impossible to tell every- 
thing you know about these subjects in two hundred words. 
You could limit them by taking up the following phases 
of each subject : 

1. a. A description of my favorite bird. b. How my favorite 
bird builds its nest. 

2. a. The climax, b. How the hero escaped. 

3. a. The operating room at Hospital, b. Meal time at 

■ Hospital, i I *j 

4. a. The plan of a thirteenth century house, b. How old houses 
were heated. 

5. a. The living-room at the poor-farm. b. An interesting char- 
acter at the poor-farm. 

Take any five of the subjects you have picked out, and 
limit them by selecting two phases of each subject that 
you could develop with completeness in about two hundred 
words. 

Jotting Down Points 

And now suppose that out of these five subjects that we 
have limited, we take up the second — " An interesting 
reel " — and decide to develop the second phase we noted 
— " How the hero escaped." The thoughts, the ideas in 
connection with it that would occur to us would probably 
not come in logical order ; but we could jot them down 
as they did come, perhaps something like this : 



i 9 4 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

i. Prisoners sleep together. 

2. Night-watch goes by. 

3. Leg-chain had been partially cut through. 

4. The day had been a strenuous one. 

5. Prisoners raise heads as guard goes by. 

6. Prisoners sleeping on an elevated space at one side of 
room. 

7. Guard returns and gives the alarm. 

8. Commotion in prison after escape. 

9. Description of night watch : 

Three men with clubs, one with lantern. As rough-looking 
as the prisoners. 

10. Guard goes out of room, one of prisoners rises. 

11. Description of prisoners : 

Thin, sharp eyes. Look as if good taken out of them, evil 
put into them. 

12. Two of prisoners raise the escaping prisoner and hold one end 
of rope. 

13. Small window. 

14. Descent slow, increases speed towards bottom. 

15. Runs to a clump of trees, escapes. 

Select any one of the phases of a subject you may have 
noted, and jot down ten or fifteen thoughts or ideas that 
may occur to you in connection with it. 

Arranging the Material into an Outline 

The points jotted down are obviously not put in the 
correct, the logical order. Our next step is to arrange 
them so, and thus make an outline. And while we are 
doing that, we must try to use exact words, expressive 
words, words that convey the exact shade of meaning we 
want to give. The eighth head could be omitted. 

(In the following outline, words that have been changed 
or added are italicized.) 



HOW TO WRITE A THEME 



J 95 



4. It was the end of an unusually strenuous day. 

1. Prisoners were sleeping together. 

6. On elevated platform at one side of one of the prison dormi- 
tories. 

11. Description of prisoners : 

Thin faces, sharp eyes. Look as if all the good had been 
crushed out of them, a lot of evil had been pumped in. 

2. Night-watch comes by. 

9. Description of night-watch : 

Three men looking as rough as the prisoners, with canes 
that looked like clubs, one with a lantern. 

5. Prisoners pop up their heads as guard goes by. 

10. When guard goes out one of prisoners throws back blanket 
which covered him. 

3. Leg chain had been partly filed through. 

1 2 and 13 . Two of the prisoners give a shoulder to escaping prisoner, 
and when he reaches the small round window, hold one end of the rope 
that had in some way been secured and which had been hid under the plank 
bed. 

13 and 14. Window high above ground. Begins descent slowly, 
increases speed. 

15. Reaches bottom, runs to clump of trees and escapes. 

7. Guard returns unexpectedly. Gives alarm. Prevents escape 
of other prisoners. 

Arrange the ten or fifteen thoughts or ideas, which you 
jotted down, in the correct, the logical order, and so make 
yourself an outline. 

The First Copy 

Now we are ready for some strenuous work. If you 
have seen a high-jumper about to perform, or a sprinter 
about to get on his marks, you will have noticed, prob- 
ably, that he took in three or four long breaths. This 
seems to have an effect of filling him up with energy. The 
athlete can do his " stunt " better if he takes in a few long 



196 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

breaths, and so can the theme- writer. With your outline 
before you, write out, without stopping for anything, the 
first draft of your theme. 

Finally 

Look the thing over carefully, make corrections where 
necessary, and give it a title. Then copy it off neatly, 
indorse it properly, look it over once again, and hand it in 
on time. 

LESSON IV 

Read over the following selection and have the story 
and as far as possible the vocabulary and sentence struc- 
ture so well in mind that you can come to class, begin 
reading, and at a signal from the teacher, close your book 
and go on with the story. Try not to make any break 
between your reading and your speaking. If the teacher 
wishes, he may tell only you before you start, just where 
he wishes you to stop. He can then inquire to see if the class 
detected where the change was made. 

THE MASQUE OF THE RED DEATH 

The "Red Death" had long devastated the country. No pesti- 
lence had ever been so fatal, or so hideous. Blood was its avatar and 
its seal — the redness and the horror of blood. There were sharp 
pains, and sudden dizziness, and then profuse bleeding at the pores, 
with dissolution. The scarlet stains upon the body, and especially 
upon the face, of the victim were the pest ban which shut him out 
from the aid and from the sympathy of his fellow-men. And th r 
whole seizure, progress, and termination of the disease were the inci 
dents of half an hour. 

But the Prince Prospero was happy and dauntless and sagacious. 
When his dominions were half depopulated, he summoned to his 
presence a thousand hale and light-hearted friends from among the 



It was the end of an unusually strenuous dayjancLthe pri- 
soners were lyingy*4=e^p±3%**3^W5r on an elevated platform 
«7one side'of uvj^-j^— -W5* prison dormitorssw. They were a 

looking set of men^with thin faces and sharp eyes. They 



looked as if all the good had been crushed out of them^and a 
lot of eyil had been pumped into them. 

the night— watch of the prison came "by. It consisted 



of- 1 three men quite as rough looking as the prisoners themselves". 
They carried canes that looked like clubs^and one ' %*£x±s& a 
lantern. As they went by^the prisoners popped up their heads 

to look at them. ,,. v „-. 

RttU 

W i n m theygasrd had gone out of the room^a few of the" pris- 
ts 

oners threw back *h^ wl "*n T r» <,ft i ''tinli tsasmi tttsa and one of them 

broke the chain that was fastened to his legjttacfc had been 
partly filed through TJjvzwo of his companions gave him a shoulder- 
he climbed up to the sma jl ro und window at the top of the 



•momg- iw.i ttfcpjae ,1lw '■"" ^i'.'>iii Jtsgat end of the rope_,which had in j 
I some way been secured^an d which had been hid under the plank J 
teds »/ HiafdLUi* p/Un+MAJi A&£d #U Qtkuj &ru tj Cutul £&.> CnjOJj# tinn% ^WU^K 

At first he went down slowly-fbut as he neared the bottom^ 
he went more rapidly. *rs£- fiinaliy he reached the -rnt-frmn sad ran 
to a clump of trees, from »Vii ilu lr l-ilv;-' escaped. 

The guard returned unexpectic^ly^and so prevented the 
others from escaping,. 



FIRST DRAFT OF THEME 
Revised and Made Ready for Copying. (The first draft is typewritten.) 



197 



198 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

knights and dames of his court, and with these retired to the deep 
seclusion of one of his castellated abbeys. This was an extensive 
and magnificent structure, the creation of the Prince's own eccentric 
yet august taste. A strong and lofty wall girdled it in. This wall 
had gates of iron. The courtiers, having entered, brought furnaces 
and massy hammers, and welded the bolts. They resolved to leave 
means neither of ingress or egress to the sudden impulses of despair 
or of frenzy from within. The abbey was amply provisioned. With 
such precautions the courtiers might bid defiance to contagion. The 
external world could take care of itself. In the meantime it was folly 
to grieve, or to think. The Prince had provided all the appliances 
of pleasure. There were buffoons, there were improvisatori, there 
were ballet-dancers, there were musicians, there was Beauty, there 
was wine. All these and security were within. Without was the 
"Red Death." 

It was toward the close of the fifth or sixth month of his seclusion, 
and while the pestilence raged most furiously abroad, that the Prince 
Prospero entertained his thousand friends at a masked ball of the 
most unusual magnificence. 

It was a voluptuous scene, that masquerade. But first let me tell 
of the rooms in which it was held. There were seven — an imperial 
suite. In many palaces, however, such suites form a long and straight 
vista, while the folding-doors slide back nearly to the walls on either 
hand, so that the view of the whole extent is scarcely impeded. Here 
the case was very different, as might have been expected from the 
Prince's love of the bizarre. The apartments were so irregularly 
disposed that the vision embraced but little more than one at a time. 
There was a sharp turn at every twenty or thirty yards, and at each 
turn a novel effect. To the right and left, in the middle of each wall, 
a tall and narrow Gothic window looked out upon a closed corridor 
which pursued the windings of the suite. These windows were of 
stained glass, whose color varied in accordance with the prevailing 
hue of the decorations of the chamber into which it opened. That 
at the eastern extremity was hung, for example, in blue — and vividly 
blue were its windows. The second chamber was purple in its orna- 
ments and tapestries, and here the panes were purple. The third 
was green throughout, and so were the casements. The fourth was 
furnished and lighted with orange, the fifth with white, the sixth with 



HOW TO WRITE A THEME 



199 



violet. The seventh apartment was closely shrouded in black velvet 
tapestries that hung all over the ceiling and down the walls, falling 
in heavy folds upon a carpet of the same material and hue. But, in 
this chamber only, the color of the windows failed to correspond with 
the decorations. The panes here were scarlet — a deep blood-color. 
Now in no one of the seven apartments was there any lamp or candela- 
brum, amid the profusion of golden ornaments that lay scattered to 
and fro or depended from the roof. There was no light of any kind 
emanating from lamp or candle within the suite of chambers. But 
in the corridors that followed the suite there stood, opposite to each 
window, a heavy tripod, bearing a brazier of fire, that projected its 
rays through the tinted glass and so glaringly illumined the room. 
And thus were produced a multitude of gaudy and fantastic appear- 
ances. But in the western or black chamber the effect of the firelight 
that streamed upon the dark hangings through the blood-tinted panes 
was ghastly in the extreme, and produced so wild a look upon the 
countenances of those who entered that there were few of the com- 
pany bold enough to set foot within its precincts at all. 

It was in this apartment, also, that there stood against the western 
wall a gigantic clock of ebony. Its pendulum swung to and fro with 
a dull, heavy, monotonous clang ; and when the minute-hand made 
the circuit of the face, and the hour was to be stricken, there came 
from the brazen lungs of the clock a sound which was clear and loud 
and deep and exceedingly musical, but of so peculiar a note and em- 
phasis that, at each lapse of an hour, the musicians of the orchestra 
were constrained to pause, momentarily, in their performance, to 
hearken to the sound ; and thus the waltzers perforce ceased their 
evolutions ; and there was a brief disconcert of the whole gay com- 
pany ; and, while the chimes of the clock yet rang, it was observed 
that the giddiest grew pale, and the more aged and sedate passed their 
hands over their brows as if in confused revery or meditation. But 
when the echoes had fully ceased, a light laughter at once pervaded 
the assembly; the musicians looked at each other and smiled as if 
at their own nervousness and folly, and made whispering vows, each 
to the other, that the next chiming of the clock should produce in 
them no similar emotion ; and then, after the lapse of sixty minutes 
(which embrace three thousand and six hundred seconds of the Time 
that flies) there came yet another chiming of the clock, and then 



200 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

were the same disconcert and tremulousness and meditation as 
before. 

But, in spite of these things, it was a gay and magnificent revel. 
The tastes of the Prince were peculiar. He had a fine eye for colors 
and effects. He disregarded the decora of mere fashion. His plans 
were bold and fiery, and his conceptions glowed with barbaric lustre. 
There are some who would have thought him mad. His followers 
felt that he was not. It was necessary to hear and see and touch 
him to be sure that he was not. 

He had directed, in great part, the movable embellishments of the 
seven chambers, upon occasion of this great fete; and it was his own 
guiding taste which had given character to the masqueraders. Be 
sure they were grotesque. There were much glare and glitter and 
piquancy and phantasm — much of what has been since seen in 
Hernani. There were arabesque figures with unsuited limbs and 
appointments. There were delirious fancies such as the madman 
fashions. There was much of the beautiful, much of the wanton, 
much of the bizarre, something of the terrible, and not a little of that 
which might have excited disgust. To and fro in the seven chambers 
there stalked, in fact, a multitude of dreams. % And these — the 
dreams — writhed in and about, taking hue from the rooms, and caus- 
ing the wild music of the orchestra to seem as the echo of their steps. 
And, anon, there strikes the ebony clock which stands in the hall of 
the velvet. And then, for a moment, all is still, and all is silent save 
the voice of the clock. The dreams are stiff-frozen as they stand. 
But the echoes of the chime die away — they have endured but an 
instant — and a light, half-subdued laughter floats after them as they 
depart. And now again the music swells, and the dreams live, and 
writhe to and fro more merrily than ever, taking hue from the many 
tinted windows through which stream the rays from the tripods. 
But to the chamber which lies most westwardly of the seven, there 
are now none of the maskers who venture ; for the night is waning 
away, and there flows a ruddier light through the blood-colored panes ; 
and the blackness of the sable drapery appalls ; and to him whose foot 
falls upon the sable carpet, there comes from the near clock of ebony 
a muffled peal' more solemnly emphatic than any which reaches their 
ears who indulge in the more remote gayeties of the other apartments. 

But these other apartments were densely crowded, and in them 



HOW TO WRITE A THEME 201 

beat feverishly the heart of life. And the revel went whirlingly on, 
until at length there commenced the sounding of midnight upon the 
clock. And then the music ceased, as I have told ; and the evolu- 
tions of the waltzers were quieted ; and there was an uneasy cessation 
of all things as before. But now there were twelve strokes to 
be sounded by the bell of the clock ; and thus it happened, perhaps, 
that more of thought crept, with more of time, into the meditations 
of the thoughtful among those who revelled. And thus too it hap- 
pened, perhaps, that before the last echoes of the last chime had 
utterly sunk into silence, there were many individuals in the crowd 
who had found leisure to become aware of the presence of a masked 
figure which had arrested the attention of no single individual before. 
And the rumor of this new presence having spread itself whisperingly 
around, there arose at length from the whole company a buzz, or 
murmur, expressive of disapprobation and surprise — then, finally, 
of terror, of horror, and of disgust. 

In an assembly of phantasms such as I have painted, it may well 
be supposed that no ordinary appearance could have excited such 
sensation. In truth the masquerade license of the night was nearly 
unlimited; but the figure in question had out-Heroded Herod, and 
gone beyond the bounds of even the Prince's indefinite decorum. 
There are chords in the hearts of the most reckless which cannot be 
touched without emotion. Even with the utterly lost, to whom life 
and death are equally jests, there are matters of which no jest can be 
made. The whole company, indeed, seemed now deeply to feel that 
in the costume and bearing of the stranger neither wit nor propriety 
existed. The figure was tall and gaunt, and shrouded from head to 
foot in the habiliments of the grave. The mask which concealed 
the visage was made so nearly to resemble the countenance of a stif- 
fened corpse that the closest scrutiny must have had difficulty in de- 
tecting the cheat. And yet all this might have been endured, if not 
approved, by the mad revellers around. But the mummer had gone 
so far as to assume the type of the Red Death. His vesture was dab- 
bled in blood — and his broad brow, with all the features of the face, 
was besprinkled with the scarlet horror. 

When the eyes of Prince Prospero fell upon this spectral image 
(which with a slow and solemn movement, as if more fully to sustain 
its rdle, stalked to and fro among the waltzers) he was seen to be con- 



202 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

vulsed, in the first moment, with a strong shudder either of terror or 
distaste ; but, in the next, his brow reddened with rage. 

"Who dares?" he demanded hoarsely of the courtiers who stood 
near him — "who dares insult us with this blasphemous mockery? 
Seize him and unmask him — that we may know whom we have to 
hang at sunrise, from the battlements!" 

It was the eastern or blue chamber in which stood the Prince 
Prospero as he uttered these words. They rang throughout the seven 
rooms loudly and clearly — for the Prince was a bold and robust 
man, and the music had become hushed at the waving of his hand. 

It was in the blue room where stood the Prince, with a group of 
pale courtiers by his side. At first, as he spoke, there was a slight 
rushing movement of this group in the direction of the intruder, who 
at the moment was also near at hand, and now, with deliberate and 
stately step, made closer approach to the speaker. But from a cer- 
tain nameless awe with which the mad assumptions of the mummer 
had inspired the whole party, there were found none who put forth 
hand to seize him ; so that, unimpeded, he passed within a yard of the 
Prince's person ; and, while the vast assembly, as if with one impulse, 
shrank from the centres of the rooms to the walls, he made his way 
uninterruptedly, but with the same solemn and measured step which 
had distinguished him from the first, through the blue chamber to 
the purple — through the purple to the green — through the green 
to the orange — through this again to the white — and even thence 
to the violet, ere a decided movement had been made to arrest him. 
It was then, however, that the Prince Prospero, maddening with rage 
and the shame of his own momentary cowardice, rushed hurriedly 
through the six chambers, while none followed him on account of a 
deadly terror that had seized upon all. He bore aloft a drawn dagger, 
and had approached, in rapid impetuosity, to within three or four 
feet of the retreating figure, when the latter, having attained the ex- 
tremity of the velvet apartment, turned suddenly and confronted 
his pursuer. There was a sharp cry — and the dagger dropped gleam- 
ing upon the sable carpet, upon which, instantly afterwards, fell 
prostrate in death the Prince Prospero. Then, summoning the wild 
courage of despair, a throng of the revellers at once threw themselves 
into the black apartment, and, seizing the mummer, whose tall figure 
stood erect and motionless within the shadow of the ebony clock, 



HOW TO WRITE A THEME 203 

gasped in unutterable horror at finding the grave cerements and 
corpse-like mask, which they handled with so violent a rudeness, un- 
tenanted by any tangible form. 

And now was acknowledged the presence of the Red Death. He 
had come like a thief in the night. And one by one dropped the 
revellers in the blood-bedewed halls of their revel, and died each in 
the despairing posture of his fall. And the life of the ebony clock 
went out with that of the last of the gay. And the flames of the tri- 
pods expired. And Darkness and Decay and the Red Death held 
illimitable dominion over all. Edgar Allan Foe (1809- 1849) 

In this selection pick out a restrictive relative clause, a 
non-restrictive relative clause, a conditional clause, a 
temporal clause, and a participial phrase. What comment 
can you make on the position of the participial phrase? 

What comment can you make on the order in which the 
thoughts are presented in the last paragraph ? 



CHAPTER XXVI 
NARRATION 

LESSON I 

Narration. Almost all of us have at some time or other 
been asked by a church or school society to help make a 
wreath with which to decorate a room or a hall at Christmas 
time. We went out into the country, whenever that was 
possible, and gathered branches of pine trees, or some other 
kind of evergreen, which we brought back to the place 
where we were to make the wreath. The first thing we 
did then was to take a long, strong piece of rope. We 
fastened it firmly to some support, and then bound to 
this rope, with twine, the leaves, twigs, and branches of 
the aforementioned evergreens. When we got through 
with our task, we had a long green wreath ; and if we did 
a good piece of work, the rope and the twine were not 
visible. We had an elaborate green rope — but the hemp 
cord and twine were absolutely necessary. If we had not 
had them, all the branches and the twigs would have had 
nothing to hold them together. 

In telling a story we must follow much the same plan. 
We go into the street, or into a house, or into a book, and 
collect all the material we need for our narrative. Then, 
as we sit down to write, we must have our rope ; that is, 
a general idea of what the story is to be about, where we 

204 



NARRATION 205 

are to begin it, what we are to say about it, and how we 
are to end it. We should, if possible, boil it all down into 
one sentence. Before we started making our wreath, we 
looked over what greens we had, and then decided whether 
we should make it two inches thick or five inches thick. 
So in telling a story, we must plan out the whole thing 
before we start. 

In making our wreath we started at one end of the rope 
and wound it consecutively until we were done. We did not 
start halfway down, do a little piece there, then jump to the 
beginning and then take up another foot or so halfway 
between the middle and the beginning. So in our story, 
we should follow a regular order, and in narration, usually, 
the chronological or time order is the best. 

With these suggestions in mind, arrange your outline 
somewhat as follows : 

1 . Time and place of the action. 

2. Circumstances leading up to the exciting moment. 

3. The exciting moment. 

4. Conclusion. 

When you are done, go over the theme and see if : 

1. You said what you meant to say. 

2. What you said is clear to your readers. 

3. Your theme is interesting. 

LESSON II 

Look over the following selections and tell : 

1 . Where the author went to get his material. 

2. What is the thread of the narrative. If possible, tell it 
in one sentence. 

3. What is the exciting moment. 



206 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

4. What part of the selection may be taken as the intro- 
duction. (That part which prepares us for what is to be 
said, which introduces us to the subject.) 

5. What is the setting or background of the selection, — 
the city or the country or the sea. Is it outdoors or in- 
doors ? 

6. What is the mood or the atmosphere of the selection ; 
that is, what emotion it arouses in you, — sorrow, re- 
pulsion, " sweet melancholy," patriotism, hatred, amuse- 
ment, horror, hilarity, or something else. Can you think 
of any other emotions you or anyone else could be subject 
to? 

1. Then the Spirit of the Lord came upon Jephthah, and he passed 
over unto the children of Amnion. And Jephthah vowed a vow unto 
the Lord, and said : "If thou shalt without fail deliver the children of 
Ammon into mine hands, then it shall be, that whatsoever cometh 
forth of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return in peace 
from the children of Ammon, shall surely be the Lord's, and I will 
offer it up for a burnt offering." So Jephthah passed over unto the 
children of Ammon to fight against them; and the Lord delivered 
them into his hands. And he smote them from Aroer, even till thou 
come to Minnith, even twenty cities, and unto the plain of the vine- 
yards, with a very great slaughter. Thus the children of Ammon were 
subdued before the children of Israel. 

And Jephthah came to Mizpeh unto his house, and behold, his 
daughter came out to meet him with timbrels and with dances : and 
she was his only child ; beside her he had neither son nor daughter. 
And it came to pass, when he saw her, that he rent his clothes, and 
said : "Alas, my daughter ! thou hast brought me very low, and thou 
art one of them that trouble me : for I have opened my mouth unto 
the Lord, and I cannot go back." And she said unto him: "My 
father, if thou hast opened thy mouth unto the Lord, do to me ac- 
cording to that which hath proceeded out of thy mouth ; forasmuch 
as the Lord hath taken vengeance for thee of thine enemies, even of 
the children of Ammon." And she said unto her father : "Let this 



NARRATION 207 

thing be done for me : let me alone two months, that I may go up and 
down upon the mountains, and bewail, I and my fellows." And he 
said, "Go." And he sent her away for two months; and she went 
with her companions, and bewailed upon the mountains. And it 
came to pass at the end of two months, that she returned unto her 
father, who did with her according to his vow which he had vowed. 

2. The elder Mr. Weller still continued to make various strange 
and uncouth attempts to appear asleep ; but when Stiggins stopped 
for breath, he darted upon him, and snatching the tumbler from his 
hand, threw the remainder of the rum and water in his face, and the 
glass itself into the grate. Then, seizing the reverend gentleman 
firmly by the collar, he suddenly fell to kicking him most furiously : 
accompanying every application of his top-boots to Mr. Stiggins's 
person, with sundry violent and incoherent anathemas upon his limbs, 
eyes, and body. 

"Sammy," said Mr. Weller, "put my hat on tight for me." 

Sam dutifully adjusted the hat with the long hatband more firmly 
on his father's head, and the old gentleman, resuming his kicking with 
greater agility than before, tumbled with Mr. Stiggins through the 
bar, and through the passage, out at the front door, and so into the 
street; the kicking continuing the whole way, and increasing in 
vehemence, rather than diminishing, every time the top-boot was 
lifted. 

It was a beautiful and exhilarating sight to see the red-nosed man 
writhing in Mr. Weller's grasp, and his whole frame quivering with 
anguish as kick followed kick in rapid succession ; it was a still more 
exciting spectacle to behold Mr. Weller, after a powerful struggle, 
immersing Mr. Stiggins's head in a horse-trough full of water, and 
holding it there, until he was half -suffocated. 

"There !" said Mr. Weller, throwing all his energy into one most 
complicated kick, as he at length permitted Mr. Stiggins to withdraw 
his head from the trough, "send any vun o' them lazy shepherds here, 
and I'll pound him to a jelly first, and drownd him artervards ! Sammy, 
help me in, and fill me a small glass of brandy. I'm out o' breath, 
my boy." Dickens, " Pickwick Papers " 

Correct any misspellings or grammatical errors you can 
find in this selection. 



208 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

3. The bell of Monastier was just striking nine as I got quit of these 
preliminary troubles and descended the hill through the common. 
As long as I was within sight of the windows, a secret shame and the 
fear of some laughable defeat withheld me from tampering with 
Modes tine. She tripped along upon her four small hoofs with a sober 
daintiness of gait ; from time to time she shook her ears or her tail ; 
and she looked so small under the bundle that my mind misgave me. 
We got across the ford without difficulty — there was no doubt about 
the matter, she was docility itself — and once on the other bank, 
where the road begins to mount through pine-woods, I took in my 
right hand the unhallowed staff, and with a quaking spirit applied it 
to the donkey. Modestine brisked up her pace for perhaps three steps, 
and then relapsed into her former minuet. Another application had 
the same effect, and so with the third. I am worthy the name of an 
Englishman, and it goes against my conscience to lay my hand rudely 
on a female. I desisted, and looked her all over from head to foot ; 
the poor brute's knees were trembling and her breathing was dis- 
tressed ; it was plain that she could go no faster on a hill. God for- 
bid, thought I, that I should brutalize this innocent creature ; let 
her go at her own pace, and let me patiently follow. 

R. L. Stevenson, " Travels with a Donkey " 

4. THE BALLAD OF ROBIN HOOD'S DEATH AND BURIAL 

When Robin Hood and Little John 

Down a down a down a down 
Went o'er yon bank of broom, 

Said Robin Hood bold to Little John, 
a We have shot for many a pound. " 

Hey down, a down, a down. 

"But I am not able to shoot one shot more, 

My broad arrows will not flee ; 
But I have a cousin lives down below, 

Please God, she will bleed me." 

Now Robin he is to. fair Kirkly gone, 
As fast as he can win ; 




A HUGUENOT — MILLAIS 



NARRATION 209 

But before he came there, as we do hear, 
He was taken very ill. 

And when he came to fair Kirkly-hall, 

He knock' d all at the ring, 
But none was so ready as his cousin herself 

For to let bold Robin in. 

" Will you please to sit down, cousin Robin/' she said, 

"And drink some beer with me?" 
"No, I will neither eat nor drink, 

Till I am blooded by thee." 

"Well, I have a room, cousin Robin," she said, 

"Which you did never see, 
And if you please to walk therein, 

You blooded by me shall be." 

She took him by the lily-white hand, 

And led him to a private room, 
And there she blooded bold Robin Hood, 

While one drop of blood would run down. 

She blooded him in a vein of the arm, 

And locked him up in the room ; 
Then did he bleed all the live-long day, 

Until the next day at noon. 

He then bethought him of a casement there, 

Thinking for to get down ; 
But was so weak he could not leap, 

He could not get him down. 

He then bethought him of his bugle-horn, 

Which hung low down to his knee ; 
He set his horn unto his mouth, 
' And blew out weak blasts three. 

Then Little John, when hearing him, * 
As he sat under a tree, 



210 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

"I fear my master is now near dead, 
He blows so wearily." 

Then Little John to fair Kirkly is gone, 

As fast as he can dree ; 
But when he came to Kirkly-hall, 

He broke locks two or three : 

Until he came bold Robin to see, 

Then he fell on his knee ; 
"A boon, a boon," cries Little John, 

" Master, I beg of thee." 

"What is that boon," said Robin Hood, 
"Little John, [thou] begs of me?" 

"It is to burn fair Kirkly-hall, 
And all their nunnery." 

"Now nay, now nay," quoth Robin Hood, 
"That boon I'll not grant thee; 

I never hurt woman in all my life, 
Nor men in woman's company. 

"I never hurt fair maid in all my time, 
Nor at mine end shall it be ; 

But give me my bent bow in my hand, 
And a broad arrow I'll let flee 

And where this arrow is taken up, 
There shall my grave digged be. 

"Lay me a green sod under my head, 

And another at my feet ; 
And lay my bent bow by my side, 

Which was my music sweet ; 
And make my grave of gravel and green, 

Which is most right and meet. 

"Let me have length and breadth enough, 
With a green sod under my head ; 

That they may say, when I am dead, 
Here lies bold Robin Hood," 



NARRATION 211 

These words they readily granted him, 

Which did bold Robin please : 
And there they buried bold Robin Hood, 

Within the fair Kirkelys. 

5. We one day descried some shapeless object drifting at a dis- 
tance. At sea, everything that breaks the monotony of the surrounding 
expanse attracts attention. It proved to be the mast of a ship that 
must have been completely wrecked ; for there were the remains of 
handkerchiefs, by which some of the crew had fastened themselves 
to this spar, to prevent their being washed off by the waves. 

There was no trace by which the name of the ship could be ascer- 
tained. The wreck had evidently drifted about for many months; 
clusters of shell-fish had fastened about it, and long sea- weeds flaunted 
at its sides. But where, thought I, are the crew? Their struggle 
has long been over. They have gone down amidst the roar of the 
tempest. Their bones lie whitening among the caverns of the deep. 
Silence, oblivion, like the waves, have closed over them, and no one 
can tell the story of their end. 

What sighs have been wafted after that ship ! what prayers offered 
up at the deserted fireside of home ! How often has the wife, the 
mother, pored over the daily news, to catch some casual intelligence of 
this rover of the deep ! How has expectation darkened into anxiety, 
anxiety into dread, and dread into despair ! Alas ! not one memento 
shall ever return for love to cherish. All that shall ever be known 
is, that she sailed from her port, "and was never heard of more !" 

The sight of the wreck, as usual, gave rise to many dismal anec- 
dotes. This was particularly the case in the evening, when the 
weather, which had hitherto been fair, began to look wild and threat- 
ening, and gave indications of one of those sudden storms which will 
sometimes break in upon the serenity of a summer voyage. 

As we sat round the dull light of a lamp in the cabin, that made 
the gloom more ghastly, every one had his tale of shipwreck and dis- 
aster. I was particularly struck with a short one related by the 
captain. 

"As I was once sailing, " said he, "in a fine stout ship across the 
banks of Newfoundland, one of those heavy fogs, which prevail in 
those parts, rendered it impossible for us to see far ahead even in the 



212 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

daytime ; but at night the weather was so thick that we could not 
distinguish any object at twice the length of. the ship. 

"I kept lights at the mast-head, and a constant watch forward 
to look out for fishing-smacks, which are accustomed to lie at anchor 
on the banks. The wind was blowing a smacking breeze, and we were 
going at a great rate through the water. Suddenly the watch gave 
the alarm of \ A sail ahead ! ' It was scarcely uttered before we were 
upon her. 

"She was a small schooner, at anchor, with her broadside toward 
us. The crew were all asleep, and had neglected to hoist a light. We 
struck her just amidships. The force, the size, and weight of our 
vessel bore her down below the waves. We passed over her, and were 
hurried on our course. 

"As the crashing wreck was sinking beneath us, I had a glimpse 
of two or three half-naked wretches rushing from her cabin. They 
just started from their beds to be swallowed shrieking by the waves. 
I heard their drowning cry mingling with the wind. The blast that 
bore it to our ears swept us out of all further hearing. I shall never 
forget that cry! 

"It was some time before we could put the ship about, she was 
under such headway. We returned, as nearly as we could guess, to 
the place where the smack had anchored. We cruised about for sev- 
eral hours in the dense fog. We fired several guns, and listened if we 
might hear the halloo of any survivors. But all was silent ; we never 
saw nor heard anything of them more." Washington Irving. 

LESSON III 

Choose from the list of subjects for narrative composi- 
tions given in the appendix one subject, and make a three 
or four minute speech on it. Or recount, taking up three 
or four minutes to do so, some story that particularly 
interested you or some personal experience that particularly 
moved you. 

LESSON IV 

Write out in a theme what, in the previous lesson, you 
prepared for a speech. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
DESCRIPTION 

LESSON I 

Description. Description is that form of discourse which 
gives a picture. As was said earlier, it records all impres- 
sions perceived by the senses; but as the descriptions 
most often met with, and those which you will chiefly be 
called on to give, deal with impressions received through 
the eyes, this book will take up and discuss only that form 
of description which gives a picture. 

Someone has compared a person who is describing an 
individual or a scene to a camera, but added that the 
camera should have a brain and a heart. Description 
should give more than a mere inventory ; it should appeal 
to the imagination by suggesting things. It should not be 
merely a " police description " ; it should give some idea 
of character. 

A description has been likened to a photograph; it 
might be better to liken it to a painting. A photograph 
gives you a picture of what a place or a person looked like 
during the time of the exposure — a few seconds at most. 
A painting tries to make you see not only what a place 
looked like, but also what the impression of the place was 
on the painter ; a portrait tries to represent the expression 
of a face that to the artist seemed most characteristic. 

213 



214 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Both camera and artist have a definite point of view. 
The camera records what is before it and is reflected on 
the plate ; the artist records what comes within his range 
of vision. So in describing something, a writer must 
note only those things that lie before his eyes. When a 
camera is taking a picture of the outside of a house, it 
cannot at the same time take a picture of the inside. No 
more may you describe the outside and the inside of a 
house in the same breath. After taking the picture of the 
outside, the owner of a camera may move it inside and take 
one of the interior. So one who is describing a house may 
give us a picture of the inside as well as of the outside, but 
he must warn us whenever he changes his point of view. 

With the idea of having a definite point of view firmly 
determined on, there are four more things to pay special 
attention to: i, Order; 2, Accuracy; 3, Thoroughness; 
and 4, what would naturally follow, Clearness. 

In describing a house, you should first give, in a sentence 
or two, a general picture or impression ; then you should 
go more into detail ; but you must follow a definite ordqr. 
You may not begin with the foundation, jump to the ridge- 
pole, and then drop down to the front door. You must 
be accurate, otherwise your reader will not know just 
what you want him to; he may think, for instance, that 
the door is at the end instead of in the center of the house ; 
he may think that the upstairs windows are huge, and 
the downstairs ones merely peep-holes. You must give 
a thorough description, that is (though in a short descrip- 
tion you cannot enumerate every detail — every knot- 
hole), you must not leave out any important features. 
If you do, it will have the same effect as a hole in a paint- 
ing or a blot on a photograph. 



DESCRIPTION 215 

If you follow these directions, the chances are your de- 
scription will be clear ; but it is a safe plan to go over it 
and make sure that you can see, from what you have written, 
the thing you want your reader to see. You may have to 
add an adjective here, or remove one there ; you may have 
to change your sentence structure in one or more places, 
you may have to add a sentence. It is worth while to 
work hard on your first exercises in description ; for, if 
you do, you will find that, having gotten into the habit 
of being orderly, accurate, thorough, and clear in your 
descriptions, it will be more natural to write that way than 
otherwise. 

In giving a description of an extended view you should 
follow the same idea of having a definite point of view to 
start with and being orderly, accurate, thorough, and clear. 
You should give in a sentence or two a general picture or 
impression, then you should begin with the foreground, 
and go on out to the horizon ; or if there is a mountain before 
you, at the bottom and climb to the top. As it would 
be impossible, though, in a short description — or even 
in a very long one — to take up every detail, you should 
lay special emphasis on some one object, or on one single 
impression which we might call the point or effect of the 
description. But be sure that your reader or hearer can 
see what you want him to see. 

LESSON II 

Examine the following selections and tell : 

1. In what ones there is action or motion. In those 
selections is the emphasis placed on what is done or on 
what things look like? 



216 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

2. What differences you can see in selections 2 and 5. 

3. Why it is that selection 4 seems to have more life 
than selection 3. Does the fact that selection 4 deals 
with people whom it is easier for us to understand have 
anything to do with it? Discuss fully. 

4. What is the point of view in selection 1. Does the 
writer change his point of view at any time? 

1. In these forests I have witnessed the inhabitants of two large 
ant-hills engaged in spirited combat. I cannot pretend to say what 
occasioned discord between these republics. They were composed of 
ants of the same species, alike in their extent and population, and were 
situated about a hundred paces distance from each other. Two em- 
pires could not possess a greater number of combatants. 

Let us figure to ourselves this prodigious crowd of insects covering 
the ground lying between these two ant-hills, and occupying a space 
of two feet in breadth. Both armies met at half-way from their re- 
spective habitations, and there the battle commenced. Thousands 
of ants took their station upon the highest ground, and fought in 
pairs, keeping firm hold of their antagonists by their mandibles : a 
considerable number were engaged in the attack and leading away 
prisoners. The latter made several ineffectual efforts to escape, as 
if aware that, upon their arrival at the camp, they would experience 
a cruel death. The scene of warfare occupied a space of about three 
feet square ; a penetrating odor exhaled from all sides ; numbers of 
dead ants were soon covered with venom. Those ants composing 
groups and chains, took hold of each other's legs and pincers, and 
dragged their antagonists on the ground. Those groups formed 
successively. The fight usually commenced between two ants, who 
seized each other by the mandibles, and raised themselves upon their 
hind-legs, to allow of their bringing the abdomen forward, and spurt- 
ing the venom upon their adversary. They were frequently so closely 
wedged together that they fell upon their sides, and fought a long 
time, in that situation, in the dust ; they shortly after raised them- 
selves, when each began dragging its adversary ; but when their force 
was equal, the wrestlers remained immovable,, and fixed each other 
to the ground, until a third came to decide the contest. It more 



DESCRIPTION 217 

commonly happened that both ants received assistance at the same 
time, when the whole four, keeping firm hold of a foot or antenna, 
made ineffectual attempts to gain the battle. Some ants joined the 
latter, and these were, in their turn, seized by new arrivals. It was 
in this way they formed chains of six, eight, or ten ants, all firmly 
locked together; the equilibrium was only broken when several 
warriors from the same republic advanced at the same time, who 
compelled those that were enchained to let go their hold, when the 
single combats again took place. On the approach of night each 
party returned gradually to the city, which served it for an asylum. 
The ants which were either killed or led away in captivity not being 
replaced by others, the number of combatants diminished until their 
force was exhausted. 

The ants returned to the field of battle before dawn. The groups 
again formed, the carnage recommenced with greater fury than on 
the preceding evening, and the scene of combat occupied a space six 
feet in length by two in breadth. Success was for a long time doubt- 
ful ; about mid-day the contending armies had removed to the dis- 
tance of a dozen feet from one of their cities, whence I conclude some 
ground had been gained. The ants fought so desperately, that noth- 
ing could withdraw them from their enterprise ; they did not even 
perceive my presence, and although I remained close to the army, none 
of them climbed upon my legs ; they seemed absorbed in one object, 
that of finding an enemy to contend with. . . . 

The common operations of the two colonies were not suspended 
during this warfare ; the paths, which led to a distance in the forest, 
were as much thronged as in a time of peace, and all around the ant- 
hill order and tranquillity prevailed, with the exception only of that 
side on which the battle was raging. A crowd of these insects were 
constantly to be seen setting off for the scene of combat, while others 
were returning with their prisoners. This war terminated without 
any disastrous results to the two republics ; long-continued rains 
shortened its duration, and our warriors ceased to frequent the road 
which led to the camp of the enemy. 

Pierre Ruber 

Note that the writer does not describe anything irrele- 
vant. We know that the fight took place in a forest, but 



218 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

we are not given any description of the forest. Note how 
he introduces us to his subject in the first paragraph, by 
giving us — in a nutshell — what he is to develop in the 
rest of the essay. Note too how he does not end abruptly ; 
but in a final paragraph, gradually and gracefully draws 
to a close. 

2. It is five centuries since Dante ceased writing and living here. 
After all commentaries, the Book itself is mainly what we know of 
him. The Book ; — and one might add that Portrait commonly 
attributed to Giotto, which, looking on it, you cannot help inclining 
to think genuine, whoever did it. To me it is a most touching face ; 
perhaps of all faces that I know, the most so. Lonely there, painted 
as on vacancy, with the simple laurel wound round it ; the deathless 
sorrow and pain, the known victory which is also deathless ; — sig- 
nificant of the whole history of Dante ! I think it is the mournfulest 
face that ever was painted from reality ; an altogether tragic, heart- 
affecting face. There is in it, as foundation of it, the softness, ten- 
derness, gentle affection as of a child ; but all this is as if congealed 
into sharp contradiction, into abnegation, isolation, proud hopeless 
pain. A soft ethereal soul looking out so stern, implacable grim- 
trenchant, as from imprisonment of thick-ribbed ice ! Withal it is 
a silent pain too, a silent scornful one : the lip is curled in a kind of 
godlike disdain of the thing that is eating out his heart, — as if it 
were withal a mean insignificant thing, as if he whom it had power to 
torture and strangle were greater than it. The face of one wholly 
in protest, and life-long unsurrendering battle, against the world. 
Affection all converted into indignation : an implacable indignation ; 
slow, equable, silent, like that of a god ! The eye too, it looks out 
as in a kind of surprise, a kind of inquiry, Why the world was of such 
a sort? This is Dante: so he looks, this " voice of ten silent 
centuries," and sings us "his mystic unfathomable song." 

Thomas Carlyle 

Note the adjectives that Carlyle used. Adjectives are 
very helpful — almost indispensable — in writing descrip- 
tions. 




PL, 

2 



DESCRIPTION 



219 



3. A disaster followed (whether accidental or treacherously con- 
trived by the Emperor is uncertain, as authors have given both 
accounts) worse, however, and more disastrous than any, which have 
happened to the city, by the violence of fire. It had its beginning in 
that part of the Circus which adjoins the Palatine and Caelian hills, 
where, amid the shops containing inflammable wares, the conflagra- 
tion both broke out and instantly became so fierce and so rapid from 
the wind, that it seized in its grasp the entire length of the Circus. 
For here there were no houses fenced in by solid masonry, or temples 
surrounded by walls, or any other obstacle to interpose delay. The 
blaze in its fury ran first through the level portion of the city ; then 
rising to the hills, while it again devastated every place below them, it 
outstripped all preventive measures, so rapid was the mischief, and 
completely at its mercy the city, with those narrow winding passages 
and irregular streets which characterized old Rome. Added to this 
were the wailings of terror-stricken women, the feebleness of age, the 
helpless inexperience of childhood, the crowds who sought to save 
themselves or others, dragging out the infirm or waiting for them, 
and by their hurry in the one case, by their delay in the other exag- 
gerating the confusion. ... At last, doubting what they should 
avoid, or whither betake themselves, they crowded the streets or flung 
themselves down in the fields ; while some who had lost their all, even 
their very daily bread, and others, out of love for their kinsfolk whom 
they had been unable to rescue, perished, though escape was open to 
them. And no one dared to stop the mischief, because of incessant 
menaces from a number of persons who forbade the extinguishing of 
the flames; because others again openly hurled brands, and kept 
shouting that there was one who gave them authority : either seeking 
to plunder more freely, or obeying orders. 

Nero at this time was at Antium, and did not return to Rome until 
the fire approached his house which he had built to connect the palace 
with the gardens of Maecenas. It could not, however, be stopped from 
devouring the palace, the house, and everything around it. How- 
ever, to relieve the people, driven homeless as they were, he threw 
open to them the Campus Martius and the public buildings of Agrippa, 
and even his own gardens, and raised temporary structures to receive 
the destitute multitude. Supplies of food were brought up from 
Ostia and the neighboring towns, and the price of corn was reduced 



220 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

to three sestertia (twelve cents) a peck. These acts, though popular, 
produced no effect, since a rumor had gone forth everywhere that, at 
the very moment when the city was in flames, the Emperor appeared 
on a private stage, and sang of the destruction of Troy, comparing 
present misfortunes with the calamities of antiquity. Tacitus 

Note how, in the first paragraph,, we see the fire ; in 
the second, we see the frightened people and hear their 
cries. From the order Tacitus followed, we can judge 
that to him, though the fire was terrible, the suffering of 
the people was more terrible. The last paragraph is 
narration, not description; but by adding that last para- 
graph, which tells of what was done after the fire, the 
writer was able to impress us even more forcibly with 
the awfulness of the catastrophe. 

4. On another occasion while with the round-up we were spared an 
excessively unpleasant night only because there happened to be two 
or three great corrals not more than a mile or so away. All day long 
it had been raining heavily, and we were well drenched ; but towards 
evening it lulled a little, and the day herd, a very large one, of some 
two thousand head, was gathered on an open bottom. We had turned 
the horses loose, and in our oil-skin slickers cowered, soaked and com- 
fortless, under the lee of the wagon to take a meal of damp bread and 
lukewarm tea, the sizzling embers of the fire having about given up 
the ghost after a fruitless struggle with the steady down-pour. Sud- 
denly the wind began to come in quick, sharp gusts, and soon a regu- 
lar blizzard was blowing, driving the rain in stinging level sheets be- 
fore it. 

Just as we were preparing to turn into bed, with the certainty of a 
night of more or less chilly misery ahead of us, one of my men, an 
iron-faced personage, whom no one would ever have dreamed had a 
weakness for poetry, looked towards the plain where the cattle were 
and remarked, "I guess there's ' racing and chasing on Cannobie Lea,' 
now, sure." Following his gaze, I saw that the cattle had begun to 
drift before the storm, the night guards being evidently unable to 
cope with them, while at the other wagons riders were saddling in hot 



DESCRIPTION 221 

• haste and spurring off to their help through the blinding rain. Some 
of us at once ran out to our own saddle-band. All of the ponies were 
standing huddled together, with their heads down and their tails to 
the wind. They were wild and restive enough usually ; but the storm 
had cowed them, and we were able to catch them without either rope 
or halter. We made quick work of saddling ; and the second each 
man was ready, away he loped through the dusk, splashing and slip- 
ping in the pools of water that studded the muddy plain. Most of 
the riders were already out when we arrived. The cattle were gath- 
ered into a compact, wedge-shaped, or rather fan-shaped mass, with 
their tails to the wind — that is, towards the thin end of the wedge 
or fan. In front of this fan-shaped mass of frightened, maddened 
beasts, was a long line of cow-boys, each muffled in his slicker and 
with his broad hat pulled down over his eyes, to shield him from the 
pelting rain. When the cattle were quiet for a moment, every horse- 
man at once turned round with his back to the wind, and the whole 
line stood as motionless 'as so many sentries. Then, if the cattle 
began to spread out and overlap at the ends, or made a rush and 
broke through at one part of the lines, there would be a change into 
wild activity. The men, shouting and swaying in their saddles, 
darted to and fro with reckless speed, utterly heedless of danger — 
now racing to the threatened point, now checking and wheeling their 
horses so sharply as to bring them square on their haunches, or even 
throw them flat down, while the hoofs ploughed long furrows in the 
slippery soil, until, after some minutes of mad galloping hither and 
thither, the herd, having drifted a hundred yards or so, would be once 
more brought up standing. We always had to let them drift a little 
to prevent their spreading out too much. The din of the thunder 
was terrific, peal following peal until they mingled in one continuous 
rumbling roar ; and at every thunder-clap louder than its fellows, the 
cattle would try to break away. Darkness had set in, but each flash 
of lightning showed us a dense array of tossing horns and staring eyes. 
It grew always harder to hold in the herd ; but the drift took us along 
to the corrals already spoken of, whose entrances were luckily to wind- 
ward. As soon as we reached the first we cut off part of the herd, 
and turned it within ; and after again doing this with the second, we 
were able to put all the remaining animals into the third. 

The instant the cattle were housed, five-sixths of the horsemen 



222 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

started back at full speed for the wagons ; the rest of us barely waited 
to put up the bars and make the corral secure before galloping after 
them. We had to ride right in the teeth of the driving storm ; and 
once at the wagons we made small delay in crawling under our blan- 
kets, damp though the latter were, for we were ourselves far too wet, 
stiff, and cold not to hail with grateful welcome any kind of shelter 
from the wind and the rain. Theodore Roosevelt 

Note the " setting " given in the first paragraph. 

In the latter part of this description we are told that 
darkness had set in. How did the writer see what hap- 
pened ? 

Pick out passages that make you see, hear, or feel what 
took place. 

5. But the boatswain was a more amusing personage. He was con- 
sidered to be the taughtest (that is, the most active and severe) boat- 
swain in the service. He went by the name of " Gentleman Chucks," 
— the latter was his surname. He appeared to have received half 
an education ; sometimes his language was for a few sentences re- 
markably well chosen, but, all of a sudden, he would break down at a 
hard word ; but I shall be able to let the reader into more of his history 
as I go on with my adventures. He had a very handsome person, 
inclined to be stout, keen eyes, and hair curling in ringlets. He held 
his head up, and strutted as he walked. He declared "that an officer 
should look like an officer, and comport himself accordingly." In his 
person he was very clean, wore rings on his great ringers, and a large 
frill to his bosom, which stuck out like the back fin of a perch, and the 
collar of his shirt was always pulled up to a level with his cheek bones. 
He never appeared on deck without his " persuader," which was three 
rattans twisted into one, like a cable ; sometimes he called it his Order 
of the Bath, or his Tritf juncttf in uno ; and this persuader was seldom 
idle. He attempted to be very polite, even when addressing the com- 
mon seamen, and, certainly, he always commenced his observations 
to them in a very gracious manner, but, as he continued, he became 
less choice in his phraseology. O'Brien said that his speeches were 
like the sin of the poet, very fair at the upper part of them, but shock- 
ing at the lower extremities. As a specimen of them, he would say 



DESCRIPTION 223 

to the man on the forecastle, " Allow me to observe, my dear man, in 
the most delicate way in the world, that you are spilling that tar upon 
the deck — a deck, sir, if I may venture to make this observation, I 
had the duty of seeing holystoned this morning. You understand 
me, sir, you have defiled his Majesty's forecastle. I must do my duty, 
sir, if you neglect yours; so take that — and that — and that — 
(thrashing the man with his rattan) — you haymaking son of a sea 
cook. Do it again, and I'll cut your liver out." 

Captain Frederick Marryat 

In this selection we have a description of the appearance 
of Boatswain Chucks, but we also get a very good idea of 
his character. The writer has done this by showing us: 
a. How he looks and dresses, and why he dresses as he 
does. b. What he does, and the manner in which he does it. 

LESSON III 

Oral composition. Look over the following exercises 
and come to class prepared to answer intelligently the 
questions that are asked. Your answers should be com- 
plete ; and to make them such, you will have to give more 
than mere sentences. You will have to say something 
about the composition of the pictures ; you will have to 
indicate clearly what details illustrate your points ; you 
will have to show that there is a definite connection be- 
tween what you say about the pictures and what you say 
about descriptions. You must, of course, be very par- 
ticular about your English. 

THE LIGHT OF THE WORLD— Holman-Hunt 

Examine carefully the picture facing page 234. Note that it is late 
twilight, that the lantern sheds the kind of light it would in late twi- 
light ; and yet the leaves on the bushes, and even the veins of the 
leaves, stand out as clearly as they would in bright daylight. What 



224 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

comment can you make on this? Does it suggest any helpful ideas 
about writing descriptions? 

A HUGUENOT — Millais ANGELUS — Millet 

Compare the pictures facing pages 208 and 271. You will notice 
that the composition is about the same in both. There are two cen- 
tral figures in each, the figures are in each case moved by certain emo- 
tions (the emotions in the first cause the figures to be tense, in the 
second relaxed). In the- first, the artist has spent great care in bring- 
ing out every possible detail, even to the mortar between the bricks, 
and the lichens growing on the bricks and the mortar. In the second, 
the eye without any hesitation, without being detracted by other 
things, immediately rests on the two central figures. In the first 
one, the two lovers form the "point" or "effect" of the picture, but 
this is weakened by certain distracting elements. In the second, 
there is nothing to distract. What suggestion does the contempla- 
tion of these pictures give you about Unity? About the writing of 
descriptions ? 

ST. JEROME IN HIS CELL — Durer 

Note the overinsistence on detail in the picture facing page 245 ; but 
note at the same time that the central figure, which forms the "point" 
or "effect" of the picture, stands out very clearly. The artist has 
succeeded in doing this by making the light parts of this central 
"point" or "effect" a little lighter, the dark parts a little darker, and 
the outlines a little clearer and sharper than those of the details in 
the rest of the picture. Comment on this, and note fully what sug- 
gestions it gives about bringing out the "point" or "effect" of a de- 
scription. 

RAILWAY STATION — Frith 

Is there any one concrete idea brought out by the picture facing page 
30, or are there so many different ones that the mind is confused ? 

How many groups of people, each one of which could form the sub- 
ject of a painting, can you pick out ? 

Does this picture suggest anything that would help you in the 
writing of a description ? 



DESCRIPTION 225 

TRACK TEAM NIGHT-WATCH — Rembrandt 

Look at the pictures facing pages 132 and 261. The first of these 
is a photograph ; the second, a painting. In the first, every face and 
every figure stands out equally clearly. There is no central " point" 
or "effect." 

Comment on the difference, in that respect, between the two 
pictures. Does it suggest anything that might be of help to you in 
writing descriptions? 

LESSON IV 

Choose from the list of subjects for descriptive composi- 
tions given in the appendix, one subject, and write a theme 
of about three hundred or four hundred words on it. Or 
describe, in a theme of about the same length, some scene 
or some picture that particularly interested you or par- 
ticularly moved you. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
EXPOSITION 

LESSON I 

Exposition. Exposition is really explanation. Descrip- 
tion aims to make us see something ; exposition, to make 
us understand something. Description tries to tell us 
what a thing looks like ; exposition, what it is, why it is, 
and how it works. Description has been likened to a 
photograph and to a painting ; exposition could be likened 
to an architect's plans or working-drawings. 

In the lesson on description you were told to be orderly, 
accurate, thorough, and clear; in writing an expository 
theme you must be even more careful to be orderly, ac- 
curate, thorough, and clear. In writing narratives and 
descriptions, you will find an outline of great help. In 
writing an exposition, you will find an outline absolutely 
necessary. 

In studying about narration, you were told to gather 
together all the material you were to use, and then to 
arrange it. In exposition you should follow the same 
plan. You should collect all the points you are to discuss, 
being very careful not to overlook any important detail ; 
then, for your outline, arrange related things in groups. 

Each group would probably take up one paragraph. 
It is a good plan to have a topic sentence at the beginning 

226 



EXPOSITION 227 

of each paragraph. (A topic sentence or a key sentence 
is one which puts in a nutshell the ideas brought out in 
the paragraph.) You should also show the transition 
from one paragraph to another by means of a transition 
sentence, or even by means of single words such as however, 
likewise, also, moreover, etc., that would show the con- 
nection between what has been said and what is going to 
be said. In descriptions it is necessary that you notify 
your reader when you change your point of view ; in 
expositions it is necessary that you give your reader warn- 
ing when you are to make a transition. 

There is still another thing you should remember in 
writing expository themes , and that is to be sure that 
your reader is able to follow every step you take. Conse- 
quently it is a good plan to proceed from what he knows 
to what he doesn't know, rather than to start in with some 
phase of the subject that he does not understand and then 
lead up to one he does. You will find that using examples 
and illustrations, comparing and contrasting what you are 
presenting with something similar or something different, 
will be a great help to you in making your reader under- 
stand what you want him to. 

LESSON II 

Read over the following selections. Give careful con- 
sideration to the questions asked and to the suggestions 
for exercises given at the end of each selection. Be ready 
to discuss them intelligently, but do not prepare any formal 
speeches or themes. 

1. The mariner's compass is an instrument by means of which 
the directive force of that great magnet, the earth, upon a freely 



228 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

suspended needle, is utilized for a purpose essential to navigation. 
The needle is so mounted that it moves freely only in the horizontal 
plane. The direction assumed by the needle is not generally towards 
the geographical north, but diverges towards the east or west of it. 
Amongst mariners this angle is known as the variation of the compass. 

The compass, as we know it, is the result of the necessities of 
navigation, which have increased from century to century. It con- 
sists of five principal parts : the card, the needles, the bowl, the 
jeweled cap, and the pivot. The card or "fly," formerly made of 
cardboard, now consists of a disk either of mica covered with paper 
or of paper alone, but in all cases the card is divided into points 
and degrees. The outer margin is divided into degrees with o° 
at north and south, and 90 at east and west ; the thirty-two points, 
with half and quarter points, are seen immediately within the degrees. 
The north point is marked with afleurde lis, and the principal points 
(northeast, east, etc.) and the intermediate points (north-northeast, 
east-northeast, etc.) have their names indicated by initials. 

The more modern form of card consists of a broad ring of paper, 
marked with degrees and points, attached to a frame where an outer 
aluminum ring is connected by thirty-two radial silk threads to a 
central disk of aluminum, in the center of which is a round hole, de- 
signed to receive an aluminum cap with a highly polished sapphire 
center, worked to the form of an open cone. To direct the card, 
eight short light needles are suspended by silk threads from the outer 
ring. Single needles are never used, two being the least number. 
The combination of card, needles, and cap is generally termed "the 
card," though on the continent it is commonly called "the rose." 

Another form of compass is called the liquid or spirit compass. 
In this, the card floats in a bowl filled with distilled water and 
alcohol. The bowl is hermetically sealed, and allowance is made 
for contraction and expansion of the liquid. The card is a mica 
disk upon which the degrees and points are printed, the needles 
being enclosed in brass. Great steadiness of card with a minimum 
of friction is obtained with this compass. 

All compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the bowl and 
card level under every circumstance of the ship's motion, the ring 
being connected with the binnacle or pedestal by means of knife 
• edges. On the inside of every compass bowl is drawn a vertical 



EXPOSITION 



229 



black line, called "the lubber's point," and it is imperative that when 
the compass is placed in the binnacle, the line joining the pivot and 
the lubber's point be parallel to the keel of the vessel. 

In every ship a position is selected for the navigating or standard 
compass, as free from neighboring iron as possible ; and by this 
compass all courses are shaped and bearings taken. The binnacles 
or pedestals for compasses are generally constructed of wood, and 
are fitted to receive and alter at pleasure the several magnet and soft 
iron correctors. They are also fitted with different forms of sus- 
pension in which the compass is mounted to obviate the mechanical 
disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the hull in ships 
driven by powerful engines. 

What purpose is served by the first sentence? 

Is the emphasis placed on making you see what a compass 
looks like ; or on making you understand what a compass 
is and how it works ; or are both ideas emphasized ? 

How would you explain the working of an automobile 
engine, a telephone, a sewing-machine, a phonograph? 

2. A gondola is in general rowed only by one man, standing at the 
stern ; but those of the upper classes have two or more boatmen, for 
greater speed and magnificence. In order to raise the oar sufficiently , 
it rests, not on the side of the boat, but on a piece of crooked timber 
like the branch of a tree, rising about a foot from the boat's side, 
and called a "forcola." The forcola is of different forms, according 
to the size and uses of the boat, and it is always somewhat compli- 
cated in its parts and curvature, allowing the oar various kinds of 
rests and catches on both its sides, but perfectly free play in all 
cases; as the management of the boat depends on the gondolier's 
being able in an instant to place his oar in any position. The forcola 
is set on the right-hand side of the boat, some six feet from the stern : 
the gondolier stands on a little flat platform or deck behind it, and 
throws nearly the entire weight of his body upon the forward stroke. 
The effect of this stroke would be naturally to turn the boat's head 
round to the left, as well as to send it forward ; but this tendency 
is corrected by keeping the blade of the oar under the water on the 



23 o THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

return stroke, and raising it gradually, as a full spoon is raised out 
of any liquid, so that the blade emerges from the water only an 
instant before it again plunges. A downward and lateral pressure 
upon the forcola is thus obtained, which entirely counteracts the 
tendency given by the forward stroke ; and the effort, after a little 
practice, becomes hardly conscious, though, as it adds some labor to 
the back stroke, rowing a gondola at speed is hard and breathless 
work. 

If then the gondola is to be turned to the left, the forward impulse 
is given without the return stroke ; if it is to be turned to the right, 
the plunged oar is brought forcibly up to the surface ; in either case 
a single strong stioke being enough to turn the light and flat-bottomed 
boat. But as it has no keel, when the turn is made sharply, as out 
of one canal into another very narrow one, the impetus of the boat 
in its former direction gives it an enormous lee-way, and it drifts 
laterally up against the wall of the canal, and that so forcibly, that 
if it has turned at speed, no gondolier can arrest the motion merely 
by strength or rapidity of stroke of oar ; but it is checked by a strong 
thrust of the foot against the wall itself. 

John Ruskin, " The Stones of Venice " 

Discuss, as fully as Ruskin has discussed how to manage 
a gondola, " How to Manage a Canoe." 

3. ARTICLE II. Section i. The executive power shall be 
vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall 
hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the 
vice-president, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows: — 
******* 

No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be 
eligible to the office of president ; neither shall any person be eligible 
to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five 
years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the 
said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president, and the 
congress may by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resigna- 



EXPOSITION 231 

tion, or inability, both of the president and vice-president, declaring 
what officer shall then act as president, and such officer shall act 
accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president shall be 
elected. 

The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a 
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : — 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of president of the United States, and will to the best of 
my ability, preserve, protect and defend the constitution of the 
United States." 

Sect. 2. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
states, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he 
may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each 
of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the 
duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant 
reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except 
in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and 
consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public minis- 
ters and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers 
of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise 
provided for, and which shall be established by law : but the congress 
may by law vest the appointment of" such inferior officers, as they 
think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the 
heads of departments. 

The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Sect. 3 . He shall from time to time give to the congress informa- 
tion of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration 



232 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on 
extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and 
in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of 
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think 
proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; 
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
commission all the officers of the United States. 

Sect. 4. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, 
and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and mis- 
demeanors. Constitution of the United States 

Give an exposition defining the duties of an umpire, or 
a foreman, or a policeman, or a district nurse. 

4. Wit is eliciting surprise by an unexpected association of ideas; 
humor is eliciting surprise by an unexpected association of things. 
Surprise and ideas are the important words in the first ; surprise 
and things in the second definition. If any stronger feeling than 
surprise is aroused, the wit or the humor disappears. If the witti- 
cism is profane, to the religious mind it loses its force. Thus a truly 
noble object cannot be made the subject of degrading wit, while 
pretentious greatness at once becomes its butt. The dandy slipping 
into the ditch is a humorous object, but fracturing his limb, he be- 
comes an object of pity. 

Wit is distinguished from humor by pertaining to ideas rather 
than to persons or things. Wit thus is more transient, spends itself 
in sudden sallies, while humor is more continuous, follows the narra- 
tive in its events and makes up the comedy of life. Wit is more 
cutting and brilliant, humor more mild and pleasing; wit more 
admirable, humor more laughable ; wit more to be feared, humor 
more to be loved. 

The unexpected union and quick recoil of ideas please the mind. 
A pun is an agreement in sound with different meanings. The mind 
is instantly foiled in the natural completion of its work. But wit 
very soon becomes stale. Surprise quickly disappears, and then the 
connection no longer pleases us. The habit of mind, therefore, which 
wit cherishes is obviously not desirable. Wit turns on secondary 



EXPOSITION 233 

and trifling relations, not on fundamental agreements. The more 
philosophical our habits of observation, the more carefully and con- 
stantly we note important resemblances, the less shall we mark 
or treasure the trivial connections of wit.. The movement of mind 
from which wit springs is opposed both to thorough and serious 
reflection, and ought not, therefore, to become habitual. 

An undesirable result of wit, when constantly employed, is the 
insatiable demand to which it gives rise. Men love to laugh better 
than to think; and the moment they find one who can indulge 
them in this respect, they require a constant exhibition of his power, 
and transform him, as far as possible, into a public buffoon. Great 
earnestness and strength of purpose are required to resist this tend- 
ency. The power is rare and exceedingly attractive, and flatter- 
ing in the immediate popularity it confers.. One who possesses 
it is strongly tempted to indulge it on all occasions, more and 
more to rely upon it, and thus ultimately becomes a cracker of 
jokes. 

Notwithstanding their dangers, wit and humor may subserve an 
important purpose. One can, indeed, succeed perfectly without 
them, but can succeed a little more readily with them. To awaken 
interest, quicken the flagging attention, relieve protracted debate, 
aid an unpopular theme, parry assault, carry home to the obtusest 
mind an argument, and afford a decent retreat or brilliant exit, wit is 
most efficient. John B as com, " Philosophy of Rhetoric " 

Bring to class five witty stories and five humorous ones. 
Explain the difference between the two kinds. 

5. "I, Charles Lounsbury, being of sound mind and disposing 
memory, do hereby make and publish this, my last will and testa- 
ment, in order as justly as may be to distribute my interest in the 
world among succeeding men. 

"That part of my interest which is known in law and recognized 
in the sheepbound volumes as my property, being inconsiderable 
and of no account, I make no disposal of in this my will. 

"My right to live, being but a life estate, is not at my disposal, 
but these things excepted all else in the world I now proceed to de- 
vise and bequeath : — 



234 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

"Item: I give to good fathers and mothers, in trust for their 
children, all good little words of praise and encouragement, and all 
quaint pet names and endearments, and I charge said parents to use 
them justly and generously, as the needs of their children may require. 

"Item: I leave to children inclusively, but only for the term of 
their childhood, all and every, the flowers of the fields, and the blos- 
soms of the woods, with the right to play among them freely accord- 
ing to the customs of children, warning them at the same time against 
thistles and thorns. And I devise to children the banks of the brooks, 
and the golden sands beneath the waters thereof, and the odors of 
the willows that dip therein, and the white clouds that float high 
over the giant trees. And I leave the children the long, long days 
to be merry in, in a thousand ways, and the night and the moon 
and the train of the Milky Way to wonder at, but subject never- 
theless to the rights hereinafter given to lovers. 

"Item: I devise to boys jointly all the useful idle fields and 
commons where ball may be played ; all pleasant waters where 
one may swim ; all snowclad hills where one may coast, and all 
streams and ponds where one may fish, or where, when grim Winter 
comes, one may skate ; to have and to hold the same for the period 
of their boyhood. And all meadows with the clover blossoms and 
butterflies thereof, the woods and appurtenances, the squirrels and 
birds, and echoes and strange noises, and all distant places which 
may be visited, together with the adventures there found. And I 
give to said boys each his own place at the fireside at night, with all 
pictures that may be seen in the burning wood, to enjoy without let 
or hindrance and without any incumbrance of care. 

"Item : To lovers, I devise their imaginary world, with whatever 
they may need ; as the stars of the sky ; the red roses by the wall ; 
the bloom of the hawthorn ; the sweet strains of music, and aught 
else by which they may desire to figure to each other the lastingness 
and beauty of their love. 

"Item: To young men jointly, I devise and bequeath all bois- 
terous, inspiring sports of rivalry, and I give to them the disdain 
of weakness and undaunted confidence in their own strength though 
they are rude ; I give them the power to make lasting friendships, 
and of possessing companions, and to them exclusively I give all 
merry songs and brave choruses, to sing with lusty voices. 




THE LIGHT OF THE WORLD — HUNT 



EXPOSITION 235 

"Item: And to those who are no longer children or youths or 
lovers, I leave memory, and I bequeath to them the volumes of the 
poems of Burns and Shakespeare and of other poets, if there be 
others, to the end that they may live over the old days again, freely 
and fully, without tithe or diminution. 

"Item: To our loved ones with snowy crowns I bequeath the 
happiness of old age, the love and gratitude of their children, until 
they fall asleep;" 

Give a character sketch of Charles Lounsbury, telling — 
from what you have been able to gather from reading his 
Will — just what kind of man you think he must have been. 

LESSON III 

Look over the following selections and give an exposition 
(oral) of one of the subjects suggested by them, or of one 
of the subjects suggested by the selections you read in 
Lesson II, or of a subject given in the appendix in the list 
of subjects for expository themes. 

1. Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902), the great man of South Africa, left 
by his will a large sum of money, the income of which was to be 
used in providing scholarships at Oxford University, England, for a 
number of young men from America and other countries. Each 
year some are selected to go over; and those who form the com- 
mittee to pick them, are guided in their selection by certain stipu- 
lations in the will : 

"I direct that in the election of a student to a scholarship, regard 
shall be had to — 

"1, His literary and scholastic attainments. 

" 2. His fondness of and success in manly out-door sports, such as 
cricket, football, and the like. 

"3. His qualities of manhood, truth, courage, devotion to duty, 
sympathy for the protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness, 
and, — 

"4. His exhibition during school-days of moral force of character, 



236 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

and instincts to lead and take an interest in his school-mates ; for 
those latter attributes will be likely in after life to guide him to 
esteem the performance of public duties as his highest aim." 

Take some member of your school, who you think would 
qualify to become a Rhodes Scholar, and give a character 
sketch of him. 

2. " Julian inviolably preserved for Athens that tender regard 
which seldom fails to arise in a liberal mind from the recollection of 
the place where it has discovered and exercised its growing powers.' ' 

This selection is taken from Edward Gibbon's (1737— 
1794) Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, and tells us 
how the Emperor Julian felt towards the place where he 
had been a student. Notice how beautifully it is expressed ; 
notice also that the tender regard he felt for the place was 
due chiefly to the fact that he had " found himself " there. 

Give an exposition of " School Spirit," telling fully what 
it is that makes you feel a tender regard for the institu- 
tion of which you are a member. 

3. "If Julian could now revisit the capital of France, he might 
converse with men of science and genius, capable of understanding 
and of instructing a disciple of the Greeks; he might excuse the 
lively and graceful follies of a nation whose martial spirit has never 
been enervated by the indulgence of luxury; and he must applaud 
the perfection of that inestimable art which softens and refines and 
embellishes the intercourse of social life." 

This selection is also from Gibbon. Julian, in Gaul, — 
which at that time was pretty crude, — longed to return 
to Athens, then the home of culture. Now, Gibbon says, 
the capital of France is quite as cultivated a place as 
ancient Athens. Notice how smoothly, gracefully, beau- 
tifully the last clause reads. 



EXPOSITION 237 

Give an exposition of some city or town or community 
or organization you are acquainted with, in which every- 
thing tends to " soften and refine and embellish the inter- 
course of social life." Use as many of the words Gibbon 
has employed as you can. 

(Remember this does not call for a description. You are not 
asked to tell how the place or organization looks, but what it is.) 

LESSON IV 

Write out in a theme what, in the previous lesson, you 
prepared for a speech. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
ARGUMENTATION 

LESSON I 

Argumentation. There are three very important things 
to remember in connection with argumentation. 

i. Don't argue about everything. It is quite as bad 
form to be " cantankerous " and to doubt everything that 
is said, as it is to be a " gull " and believe everything that 
is said. 

2. Your own personal opinion about a certain thing, or 
your belief in it, does not necessarily make it true. 

3. A mere statement is not an argument; you must 
present facts to back it up. 

To these we might add a fourth, though it might almost 
go without saying, — be fair, be honest, be courteous. 

First, think out your proposition clearly. Then collect 
all your facts (make clear statements about them) and 
arrange them so that your hearer or reader may know 
immediately just what you are supporting, and what is 
to be your line of proof. Then present your proofs ; but. 
do not have too many of them, for they may confuse 
your reader. Two or three strong arguments can do more 
to convince than a dozen weak ones.' A rifle bullet goes 
farther and does more execution than the discharge from a 
shot-gun. 

238 



ARGUMENTATION 239 

In presenting your proofs remember that an appeal, an 
exhortation, is not an argument. Remember also that a 
mere statement amounts to little unless you put facts be- 
hind it. 

So far we have spoken only of the constructive side of 
argumentation. There is also a destructive side to it. 
Arguing is really something like fighting. In war it is 
not enough merely to dig and build your own trenches ; 
if you want to win the battle, you must destroy your 
opponent's trenches. So in argumentation it is not enough 
merely to build up your arguments ; if you want to win 
someone over to your way of thinking, you must destroy 
his arguments. This is what is called refutation. You 
must clear away any objections that may lie in the way of 
your opponent's agreeing with you ; you must point out, 
too, the fallacies or weak points in his line of argument. 

No rule can be laid down as to just what order you 
should follow. Sometimes it is best to destroy your 
opponent's arguments first and then to go on and build 
up your own. Sometimes it is best to build up your own 
first, and then gradually and gracefully to destroy his. 
The only thing that can guide you is your common sense, 
and that is a pretty safe thing to rely on. 

At the close you should always sum up, in a few con- 
vincing words, the main points of your argument. Be 
sure to make your last sentence the strongest. 

[Never use the expression "to have an argument ," when you mean 
simply a to talk over" or "to discuss" something.] 

A complete outline for a debate is given in Appendix VI. 



240 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON II 

What principles, already given you in this, chapter, do 
the following selections confirm? 

i. Examples I could cite you more ; 
But be contented with these four ; 
For when one's proofs are aptly chosen, 
Four are as valid as four dozen. Prior 

2. Erasmus, asked to attack the errors of Luther, said: "My 
Lord, nothing is more easy to say than, 'Luther is mistaken'; and 
nothing more difficult than to prove him so." 

3. Reproachful speech from either side 
The want of argument supplied ; 
They rail, reviled ; as often ends 

The contests of disputing friends. Gay 

4. Some men at the approach of a dispute neigh like horses. 
Unless there be an argument, they think nothing is doing. Some 
talkers excel in the precision with which they formulate their thoughts, 
so that you get from them somewhat to remember; others lay 
criticism asleep by a charm. Especially women use words that are 
not words, — as steps in a dance are not steps, — but reproduce 
the genius of that they speak of ; as the sound of some bells makes 
us think of the bell merely, whilst the church chimes in the distance 
bring the church and its serious memories before us. Emerson 

5. Remember always, in painting as in eloquence, the greater 
your strength, the quieter will be your manner, and the fewer your 
words ; and in painting, as in all the arts and acts of life, the secret 
of high success will be found, not in a fretful and various excellence, 
but in a quiet singleness of justly chosen aim. Ruskin 

Which of the following questions are worth arguing 
about and which are not? Discuss fully why you make 
your decision as you do. 

1. Is it a pleasant day? 

2. Should school close on Lincoln's birthday? 

3. Is a better dog than is a man? 




ARGUMENTATION 241 

4. How many angels can dance on the point of a needle ? 

5. Is Treasure Island a more interesting book than Ivanhoe? 

6. What happens when an irresistible force meets an immovable 
body? 

7. Can the Lord, who is all powerful, make a two-year-old calf in 
a minute ? 

8. Does roast beef taste better than roast lamb ? 

9. Should clocks be set ahead an hour during the summer 
months ? 

10. Would you rather be a bigger fool than you seem to be, or 
seem to be a bigger fool than you are ? 

Think out and phrase five questions that are worth 
arguing about and five that are not worth arguing about. 
Explain fully what makes them belong to the class in which 
you put them. 

In the following exercises pick out those that are argu- 
ments and those that are not. Tell at length why you make 
the selection as you do. 

1. Temperance in all things should be the rule of life, for excess 
causes disease. 

2. I believe in preserving the Republic ; therefore I shall vote the 
Republican ticket. 

3. We must restrict immigration; because I believe confidently 
that if we do not, we will not be able to Americanize the huge numbers 
that come to our shores. 

4. Secretary of State , who for ten years was a member of 

the Immigration Commission, said, "We must restrict immigra- 
tion ; because I believe confidently that if we do not, we will not 
be able to Americanize the huge numbers that come to our shores.'' 

5. I think Rudyard Kipling is a better poet than Tennyson, 
because I find him much more interesting and much more moving. 

6. Ex-Superintendent Cooley, of Chicago, says : 

"I sought an individual expression from 15 principals and 375 
teachers in the high schools of Chicago. Without an exception or a 
dissenting voice, they characterized the influence of the fraternities 



242 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

and sororities as harmful to scholarship and to discipline, as un- 
American and un-democratic." 

7. Trades Unions are a good thing for the country because they 
protect the working man from oppression by his employer. 

8. A student should not be obliged to take any study that he 
does not like ; for without interest in it, there can be no effort. 

9. The average high school boy has hardly got beyond the period 
when he is puzzled to decide whether he will be a general, an admiral, 
or a circus clown. To throw open a course of study to the election 
of such immature minds would be as edifying a spectacle as to allow 
an infant to experiment with different colored candies, for the simili- 
tude could be extended to the ultimate effect on brains- and bowels. 

10. "The metropolitan press is not the voice of the nation! 
You can no more measure the peace loving masses by the froth of 
the jingo press than you can measure the ocean's silent depths by 
the foam upon its waves !" 

Point out the fallacies that exist in the following selec- 
tions. 

1. It is either raining today or it is not raining today. It is not 
raining ; therefore it is raining. 

2. The fishing schooner Excelsior put out from Gloucester with 
a crew of sixteen men, bound for the Grand Banks. For five days 
they sailed towards the spot the skipper had selected, without running 
in with a vessel of any kind. On the sixth day a terrible storm 
struck them ; and though everything possible was done to save the 
boat, all efforts were unavailing. At seven o'clock in the evening 
the vessel foundered, with all on board, leaving no trace of the catas- 
trophe. 

3. When it was proposed to adopt the English measure of miles 
in India, it was objected that it would increase the distance between 
the towns, and that travelers would have to rise earlier in the morn- 
ing to perform their journeys. 

4. A man once bet that he could prove this side of the river was 
the other side. Pointing to the opposite shore he asked, "Is not that 
one side of the river?" 

"Yes." • 



ARGUMENTATION 243 

"Well, a river has but two sides ; if that is one side, of course this 
is the other side." 

5. "The sun is all very well, 1 ' said a Russian peasant, "but the 
moon is worth two of it. For the moon affords us light in the night 
time, when we want it, whereas the sun is with us in the day time 
when we have no occasion for it." 

6. One day, after a severe battle, Napoleon was surveying the 
field ; when a few steps from him, he perceived a dragoon, lying on 
his back, severely wounded. On coming up to him, the Emperor 
noticed that his left arm had been shot off just above the elbow. 

"My poor fellow," Napoleon cried, "I suppose you hate me now, 
because it is in my service that you have been wounded so terribly." 

"Nay, Sire," replied the soldier, "for your sake I would gladly 
lose my other arm also." 

And to prove his sincerity, he drew his sword and cut off his right 
arm. 

7. A certain Greek philosopher used to maintain that if a hare 
was chasing a tortoise, it would be impossible for him ever to catch 
up with his object. Because, before he could cover the entire dis- 
tance, he would first have to cover one half the distance. Before 
going over the remainder of the space between them, he would have 
to go over one half of that. And so, being obliged constantly to 
travel fractions of the distance, it would be impossible for him ever 
to cover the entire distance. 

8. Mr. Jones borrowed a buggy from Mr. Smith, and when he 
returned it five or six days later, it was found that one of the shafts 
was broken. Mr. Smith asked Mr. Jones to make the damage good, 
and threatened, if he did not, to refer the matter to a lawyer. 

"I'm not afraid," replied Mr. Jones ; "I can prove that the shaft 
was broken when I borrowed your buggy, that it was whole when I 
returned it, and that I never borrowed your buggy at all." 

9. Deacon Perkins fell asleep in church one Sunday and had a 
most horrible dream. He dreamed that he was living in the days of 
the French Revolution ; and that for some remarks he had innocently 
made he was suspected by some of the numerous spies that thronged 
Paris at the time, and was thrust into prison. After a few hours of 
terrible suspense, he was taken out and led with some others to the 
guillotine to be executed. His turn came, his neck was awaiting the 



244 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

fatal stroke just as the sermon came to an end. His wife, wishing 
to awaken him, tapped him on the back of his neck with her fan; 
and this was such a severe shock, — he thought it was the blade of 
the guillotine, — that he died instantly. 

10. It should be against the laws of the state and of the church 
for a man to marry his widow's sister. 

LESSON III 

Take any one of the five questions you have phrased, 
think out and tell clearly just what you mean by it, and 
collect all the facts you can about it. Make clear state- 
ments, about these and arrange them in logical order. 
Present at some length three strong proofs in support of 
your proposition, and also three objections that might be 
raised against it or against your arguments. Discuss the 
latter fully, telling how you would refute the objections, 

While you are debating a question, or while you are 
writing an argumentative theme, do not allow yourself or 
anyone else to get you off the subject. If you set out to 
reach a certain conclusion, keep on the main road that 
leads thither. Do not make any detours unless it is ab- 
solutely necessary ; and if you are once off the road, try 
to get back just as soon as you can. 

Do not quibble over minor points. Do not dwell too 
long on details. Find out first what are the significant 
points, what are the fundamental truths of your proposi- 
tion, and keep these points, these truths, constantly before 
you. 

LESSON IV 

Write out in theme form what, in the previous lesson, 
you prepared to deliver orally. 




SAINT JEROME — DURER 



CHAPTER XXX 



LETTER WRITING 



LESSON I 

Letter writing. Writers of short stories or novels or 
histories are few in number. Only a few persons are in the 
advertising business and have to write descriptions of new 
dresses or expositions of new kinds of motor-cars. The 
number of lawyers, who have to write out and present 
arguments, is comparatively small. But everybody has to 
write letters ; and letter writing involves the use of nar- 
ration, description, exposition, and argumentation. 

There are three kinds of letters : Formal , Business, and 
Personal or Social letters. 

[The adjective "formal" may of course be applied to business 
letters that are very stilted, or to social letters that are not at all 
intimate ; but the 
term " formal letter ' ' 
usually applies to a 
note written in the 
third person.] 

Formal letters. 
Formal letters are 
used chiefly for 
invitations and 
acceptances or re- 
grets to formal 
dinners or entertainments. They should always be written 
in the third person. 

245 



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36 Ptavtan &tv&e£, 



246 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



lllv. a-vioL Tyivo/, oftuavC ^v&ritvQsQs jla'vi&& 

v&au&ot tk& kanav at ucnov / Jnv&Qy&n&& 

at tk& / vn;aA,vLa,a& at tk&tv cLaswqkt&b 

CLli,&& (olviasketk 

ta . 

TVlv. OLvtkuv S'al^&vt (^kayncil&V; 

an &M&&clasu zv-emtna, ^f&jst&yyvk&v tk& Qs&v~&ntk / 

an& thauQyayncC / nvn& 'kwrva^v&ci OsVicL &&v~&nL&&n, 

at ka.it a/lteA, &v?c a' ' &La<gJo. 
3kivdy (Hariqi&qatLa'yiasl (^kwivsk, 
jCaa< CLncf&i&o,, (^aslvtawivas. 



The replies should also be written in the third person, 
and should follow the wording of the invitation exactly. 
Replies to formal invitations should be sent as early as 
possible. 

Formal invitations and replies should always be written 
on note-paper. If you add the name of the town from 
which you are writing, and the date, put it at the end 
of the note, writing out the date. 



77lv. Skavntari sfmttk a&&& / J<it& wttk 
/ kt&a^QA4Aj& TVlvo/. <Ca'W~ r i&n&& /3 r utv&& ; & fcvnd, 
vtiv-ttatvan tav tk& &v-&nLnq at Qhwitoda/ii, 
TyiaA&k tvtt&&ntk, Ivawv &uzkt "umti^l t&n 
a &ia@Jc. 

iSv&yybeAtan, lA^a^Ai,ncftaru , 
TYlosV&k t&ntk. 



LETTER WRITING 247 



tnoJ^ilvtu to a&&&ys£, tk& X/yuv-ltaX/Lo-yi/ oi 
Tflv, c^ncL TVfaA,. vftwouvt ^v&yvtto^ jonm, to 
k& juv&Q^&yvt aZ tk& yAsO,\A,i,cua& ot tJi&Ou 
dci'Uakt&v (Zlt&& €LLqa/)-eXJb to TVlv. (XvtAwb 
Sqk&vt (HhayvvoLL&'b, on ^ / w&o,c£obu &v-& / yvLna / 

Qj } &fet&Wvk&V tk& &£A>-& / VLtAs, o / n& thoii&uL'VlcL 

7iuvu& Jvu/yuJLv&cL a/yici ^&v-&nt&e^v / dt ka^ti 
Oltt&V Q,V%> ^ iLo&k. 

TA^is&rLVtcV, fCci'yb&GOQs, 



Announcements and notices. Announcements and no- 
tices, like formal letters, should be written in the third 
person, and should be as brief as possible. Sometimes it 
is desirable, when announcements are made about societies 
or organizations, to have the person who posts the an- 
nouncement or submits it to be read, sign his name and 
indicate the office he holds in the organization. When 
the notice or announcement is read out, the submitter's 
name need not be read. 

i. Mr. Brown will not meet his classes this morning. (May 3.) 

2. The Forum Literary Society will hold its regular meeting this 
evening at seven-thirty. 

Oct. 14. F. B. Jones, Secretary. 

3. a. The members of the foot-ball squad are asked to consult 
the bulletin-board in the lower hall. 

William Rankin, Captain. 



248 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

b. Foot-ball Notice 

The following men will report on the new campus at 2 this after- 
noon : 

S. Jones, Avery, Tryson, James, Ogilvie, Thornton, Osgood, Esty, 
J. Smith, Hardy, Heizer. 

The following will report at 2 : 30 : 

Bates, Quealy, Smithwick, Stockwell, Nusbaum, Spencer, Berg- 
strom, Reed, Ledyard, Anderson, D. Jones. 

All the other members of the squad will report at 3. 

Oct. 3. William Rankin, Captain. 

4. The Society of Inquiry will meet this evening in the lecture- 
room of the Physics Building. Mr. G. B. Adams, of the University of 
Michigan, will talk on his experiences as an ambulance driver in France. 
All the members of the school are cordially invited to be present. 

Nov. 18. G. X. McDougal, President. 

5. The manager of the Dramatic Club will be in room 10, from 
eleven to twelve, on Monday, January 9, to give out parts to those 
who have qualified for membership in the organization. 

Business letters. Business letters may be written on 
note-paper, but it is better if they are written on regular 
business paper (about 11 inches by 8£ inches). It is a good 
plan to write on only one side of the paper. Business 
paper maybe lined, though it is better not to have it lined. 

At the very top put the heading, the address (including 
the house number and street, the town and state) from 
which you are writing or to which you wish the reply sent ; 
and the date, which should come under the address. Ar- 
range these lines so that the end of each may come near 
the right-hand side of your paper. Note carefully the 
punctuation marks used in the examples given. 

37 Algernon Street, Or 37 Algernon St., Boston, Mass., 
Boston, Massachusetts, Nov. 3, 191 7. 

November 3, 1.9 1 7. 



LETTER WRITING 



249 



A little below the heading, on the left-hand side of the 
paper, put the salutation. This consists of the name of 
the man or woman (with title and initials) or of the firm 
to which you are writing, the complete address under that, 
and under the address, — Dear Sir or Dear Madam, if it is 
to one person that you are writing, or Gentlemen, if it is to 
some firm. Dear Sirs is permissible, but Gentlemen is a 
little better form. My dear Sir is more formal. 



Mr. John Smith, 
37 Boulder Avenue, 
Guthrie, Oklahoma, 
My dear Sir : Or : — Or , 
Or Dear Sir : — 



Smith, Brown, and Co., 
109 Dearborn St., 
Memphis, Tenn., 
Gentlemen : 



It is permissible in business letters that are not very 
formal, and in social letters that are somewhat formal, to 
use only Dear Sir: or My dear Mr. Brown: in the salu- 
tation. But if you do this, at the end of the letter, below 
the signature, and at the left of the page, you should 
put the name and address of the person to whom you are 
writing. 



Dear Sir : 



Yours truly, 



Mr. J. W. Brown, 
132 Oak Street, 
Quincy, Illinois. 



My dear Mr. Brown : 



Yours truly, 

Mr. J. W. Brown, 

132 Oak St., 
Quincy, 111. 



250 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Immediately under the salutation should come the body 
of the letter. In writing this part, you should follow the 
general directions you learned, in Chapter XXV, about 
constructing themes : i.e. you should plan out what you 
are to say before you start writing; you should have a 
separate paragraph for every new point you bring up, and 
the first line of these paragraphs should be indented at 
least half an inch. In the body of a business letter see 
to it that you say what you have to say clearly and briefly. 
But be very careful not to say it abruptly, for courtesy 
counts for much in business. 

Be sure to note all inclosures you may make, such as 
checques, postal money-orders, receipts, etc. In letters 
applying for positions, speak of your experience, your 
capacities and qualifications for filling the position ; and 
do not neglect to give references — names and addresses 
of people from whom the person you are writing to may 
make inquiries about you — or copies of any recommenda- 
tions which you may have, with the names and addresses 
of those who gave them to you. When you have finished 
what you have to say, add — a line below — the formal 
closing, Yours truly, Yours very truly, or Yours faithfully. 
Note that only the first word of the formal closing is capital- 
ized; note also that the formal closing is followed by a 
comma. Under the formal closing, put the signature — 
your name. If you have written the letter on a typewriter, 
be sure to sign your name by hand in ink. ' 

If, after you have signed a letter, you think of some- 
thing you would like to say further, you may add a post- 
script. A postscript should come below the signature, it 
should start as a paragraph at the left side of the page, 
and should be preceded by the letters P. S. A postscript 



LETTER WRITING 



251 



should be signed at least with initials. If the postscript 
should turn out to be of more importance or significance 
than the letter itself, it would be better to recast and re- 
write the whole letter. 



Yours truly, 
J. D. Smith. 



P. S._ 



J. D. S. 



In replying to a business letter, follow the directions 
already given you in the matter of the heading, the salu- 
tation, the formal closing, and the signature. In the body, 
acknowledge the receipt of the letter you are answering, 
noting its date : e.g. " I have received your letter of 
May 29." Take up every point and answer every question 
that is brought up, and note all in closures that are made 
in it. You should reply to all business letters just as soon 
as you can. If it is impossible for you to answer im- 
mediately, write a short note acknowledging your receipt 



252 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

of the letter, and saying that you will reply fully in the 
course of a few days. 

If a woman, who is unmarried, is writing a business letter, 
she should put Miss, in parentheses, before her signature ; 
if she is married, she should put under her signature, or to 
the left of it, in parentheses, her married name. In all 
cases she should sign her own name. 

i. Yours very truly, 

(Miss) Ida L. Swaine. 

2. Yours very truly, 

(Mrs. Thomas J. Leake) Ida L. Leake. 

Social letters. Social letters are the ones you are called 
on to write most often. It is a good plan to welcome all 
opportunities to write social letters, for there is nothing 
you can do which would give you better practice in writ- 
ing. In a social letter you have to use all forms of dis- 
course. When you write of what you have been doing 
the past week, you are using narration. When you 
speak of what your room looks like, you are using de- 
scription. When you tell a former teacher how your 
present instructors conduct their classes, you are using 
exposition. And when you write home for money, the 
chances are argumentation has to play a rather important 
part. 

Although social letters should not be as stilted as formal 
letters, or as concise and to the point as business letters, 
there are a few general rules you should remember about 
the form in which you should present them. A social 
letter has to conform to certain conventions ; it must not 
be a slap-dash mixture of anything that may come into 
your head. You black your shoes and brush your coat 



LETTER WRITING 253 

before making a social call quite as carefully as you do 
before waiting on Mr. - - the bank president, who, you 
hope, will give you employment of some kind. 

As you do in writing business letters, put your complete 
address and the date at the upper right-hand corner, then 
a line or two below that, on the left-hand side of the paper, 

Dear : Before you begin the body of the letter, it 

is a good plan to have something of an outline, or at least 
to jot down on a piece of paper the points you arc to take 
up in the letter, and the order in which you are to take 
them up. Write neatly and legibly ; always be courteous ; 
never give the impression that you are in a hurry by using 
abbreviations or by putting down numbers and figures 
instead of writing them out. But above all things put 
some life into your letters. You can do this only by tak- 
ing a real interest in what you are writing, and in the way 
you think the person to whom you are writing will take 
what you say. When you are through, say Yours sin- 
cerely, or anything else that your spirit, guided by your 
common sense, may direct, and under that put your 
name. 

[After visiting at anyone's house, you should always write to the 
hostess, thanking her for her hospitality and telling her of your safe 
arrival at your destination. Letters of this kind should be written 
as soon as possible.] 

You may write social letters to very intimate friends on 
business paper, but as a general thing it is better to use 
note-paper. You should be careful always to have your 
note-paper and envelopes match. If they do, one fold 
in the middle of the note-paper will be enough to make 
it fit the envelope. Business paper, unless it is to go in 
a large document envelope, should be folded once across, 



254 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



a little below the middle of the long side, and then 
twice across the other way. Always be careful to fold 

your paper evenly and 

neatly. 



[No definite* rule can be 
laid down as to the page 
order you should follow 
in writing on note-paper; 
though as a general thing, 
it is best to start on the first 
page. When the letter is 
not to extend over more than 
two pages, it is best to use 
the first and third pages.l 



2. 



2. 



On the envelope put 
the superscription. This 
is the name and the title 
of the person to whom 
you are writing, the 
street and number, or the building where he may be 
found, the town, and the state. All this and the stamp 
should be placed on the right side of the envelope. Some- 
times people like to be a little odd and place the address 
on the left side of the envelope. But this makes it very 
annoying for the clerks at the post office and so had better 
be avoided. In the upper left-hand corner it is permissible 
for you to put your own name and address. If you are 
sending the letter in care of someone else, you should 
address it as it was suggested above; only between the 
name and address you should put Care of — — the name of 
the person in whose care you are sending it. The address, 
of course, would be that of the latter person. Abbrevia- 



LETTER WRITING 



255 



tions are permissible on envelopes containing business 
letters and on envelopes containing letters to very intimate 
friends. Ordinarily it is better not to use them. Commas 
may be used after every line but the last in the superscrip- 
tion, or after none. At the end of the last line you should 
put a period. If the town and state are put on the same 
line, a comma should separate them, e.g. Portland, Oregon. 




Mr. Arthur Anderson, 

Care of Mr. J. B. Jones, 
37 Noble Street, 
Austin, 

Texas. 



N. D. James 
89 School Street 
Springfield, Mo. 


Mr. Arthur Anderson 
79 Hoxie St. 
Omaha 

Neb. 


Stamp 





256 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

LESSON II 

Comment fully on the following letters. What kind of 
persons wrote them? In what circumstances were they 
written? Can they be improved in any way? Is there 
in any of them any elaboration or decoration? Could 
this be left out without changing the whole tone of the 
letter? Which are formal, which business, and which 
personal or social? On what kind of paper should the 
letters be written? 



5 Phillips Hall, Athens, Ga. 
Sep. 15, 1917. 
The Crass Book-Store, 
273 Washburn St., Atlanta, Ga., 

Gentlemen : 
Will you kindly send me copies of the following 

books : 

Smith, H. C, Elementary Algebra (Adams & 
Co.) $1. 

Doremus, T. L., First Year Latin (Brown and 

Jones) 1.1 5 

Drury, S. L., English Spelling Book (Associ- 
ated Book Co.) .25 

Stevenson, R. L., Treasure Island (J. B. Mc- 

Phee & Co.) .50 

Thurston, G. D., English Composition (J. B. 

McPhee & Co.) 1.25 

I am enclosing a postal money-order to cover the 
amount. 

Yours truly, 

Evelyn Pickford. 



LETTER WRITING 257 

2 



Greylock Academy, 
Sandusky, Ohio, 

Mr. Henry J. Sarmon, y ' I 9 I 7- 

Manager, "The Three Pines," 
Bay Head, New Jersey, 

My dear Sir : 

I have been informed by Dr. Dole Cummings, 
the Head-Master of this school, that you wish to 
procure student waiters for your summer hotel. At 
his suggestion I am writing to apply for such a posi- 
tion. 

Dr. Cummings has kindly offered to write you 
about me ; and I have asked Mr. V. S. Harris, the 
manager of the school dining-hall, where I have 
been serving as assistant head-waiter during this 
school year, to write you also. 

I hope you will be able to give me a position. 

Yours truly, 
Emerson Dayton. 



THE CEDARS, 
Lexington, Kentucky. 

June 10, 1916. 
Dear Harry, — 

I was very much pleased when I picked up the 
paper this morning and saw that you had been 
elected captain of your school baseball team. I 
congratulate you, and wish you "Good luck!" 

You have made a good record this year ; I know, 
for I have been following your games closely; 
and this honor is no more than you deserve. 

Very sincerely yours, 

Margaret B. Jones. 



258 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



Camp Marnec, Inlet, N. Y. 
August 4, 191 7. 
Principal M. W. Lester, 
Strawn Academy, 
Placeton, N. Y., 

Dear Sir : 

Will you kindly send me, at the address given 
above, a catalogue of your school? I am anxious 
to attend some Eastern preparatory school this 
coming year, but am not sure which one I should 
choose. I am fifteen years old, and have completed 
my first year in the Thola, Iowa, High School. The 
subjects I studied and the marks I obtained each 
term are as follows : 



Algebra 


96 


94 


97 


English 


84 


85 


81 


French 


75 


78 


83 


Latin 


77 


80 


78 


Science 


95 


94 


96 



Charles Dunklee, one of your students who is 
spending the summer in this camp, is very enthu- 
siastic about Strawn, and has urged me very strongly 
to enter the school if I can gain admittance. 

My father has told me that he can allow me $500. 
for my education next year. 

Yours very truly, 

Bradford Roberts. 

P.S. I should appreciate your sending a catalogue 
to my father also. He is Mr. F. T. Roberts, 19 
Roscoe St., Thola, Iowa. 

B. R. 



LETTER WRITING 259 



3k& (LaO-IM, jCtt&U&l/U &0&t;&tA4 v&- 

aio&oZ& tk& // JbL&a,Q,uv& at uavov &owv / Jba,'viu 

3°&4it&'nvk& / b tLtt&&nth, out &vcj,ht a' ' &la&k; ; 
in I'Vlasim, /ifaZt. 



Phillips Academy, 
Laramie, Wyoming, 
January 15, 191 7. 
My dear Mrs. Enos : — 

It was only this morning that I heard of the death 
of your son Charles ; and though a month has passed 
since that sad day, I want to write you to express 
my sympathy with you in your sorrow. 

Charles was a very good friend to me while we 
were together last year. He was at all times kind 
and helpful, and I grew to love him very dearly. I 
shall always remember him as one of the finest fellows 
I have ever known. 

Please express my sympathy to Mr. Enos and 
Miss Enos, and believe me always, 
Very sincerely yours, 
Stafford E. Lee. 



260 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



ST. MARTIN'S SCHOOL 

Abernethy, Vermont. 

January 8, 191 7. 
My dear Mrs. Day : — 

I want to thank you again for the very pleasant 
visit I had at your home during the holidays. Dur- 
ing the first week of December I had dreaded the 
coming of the vacation, because I knew I could 
not go all the way home to Arizona. But when 
Fred came to my room one night with your cordial 
invitation, everything seemed brighter; I had 
something very pleasant to look forward to. 

Now I have something very pleasant to look 



back on. You were very kind to do so much for 
me while I was with you in Newton. I shall es- 
pecially remember the trip to the Charlestown 
Navy Yard. I had read and studied about "Old 
Ironsides," but it never was a real ship to me until 
I saw it and actually walked its decks ! 

Fred and I reached Abernethy safely, though we 
were an hour late. Our delay was due to a freight 
wreck near Posqueedaka Lake. We saw some of 
the wreckage ; fortunately no lives were lost. 

With kindest regards to Mr. Day, I am, 
Very sincerely yours, 

Osgood R. Roberts. 



»:: : v« ■ 









m^gm IK 1 




H 

Q 

PQ 
W 
I 

a 
u 

H 






a 

H 



LETTER WRITING 261 



8 



Headquarters Army of Northern Virginia, 
April 10th, 1865. 
General Order No. 9. 

After four years of arduous service, marked by un - 
surpassed courage and fortitude, the Army of Northern 
Virginia has been compelled to yield to overwhelming 
resources and numbers. I need not tell the brave sur- 
vivors of so many hard-fought battles, who have re- 
mained steadfast to the last, that I have consented to 
this result from no distrust of them. But, feeling that 
valor and devotion could accomplish nothing that could 
compensate for the loss that must have attended the 
continuance of the contest, I have determined to avoid 
the useless sacrifice of those whose past services have 
endeared them to their countrymen. By the terms of 
agreement, officers and men can return to their homes 
and remain until exchanged. You will take with you 
the satisfaction that proceeds from the consciousness of 
duty faithfully performed ; and I earnestly pray that a 
merciful God will extend to you his blessing and protec- 
tion. 

With an increasing admiration of your constancy and 
devotion to your country, and a grateful remembrance 
of your kind and generous considerations for myself, I 
bid you all an affectionate farewell. 

R. E. Lee, General. 

9 

Executive Mansion, 
Washington, Nov. 21, 1864. 
To Mrs. Bixby, Boston, Mass. 

Dear Madam : I have been shown in the files of the 
War Department a statement of the Adjutant General 
of Massachusetts that you are the mother of five sons 
who have died gloriously on the field of battle. I feel 
how weak and fruitless must be any word of mine which 



262 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss 
so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering 
to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks 
of the republic they died to save. I pray that our 
Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your be- 
reavement, and leave you only the cherished memory 
of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must 
be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar 
of freedom. 

Yours very sincerely and respectfully, 
A. Lincoln. 

10 

[Dr. Samuel Johnson to the Earl of Chesterfield] 

February, 1755. 
My Lord, — 

I have been lately informed by the proprietor of the 
World, that two papers, in which my Dictionary is recom- 
mended to the publick, were written by your Lordship. 
To be so distinguished, is an honour, which, being very 
little accustomed to favours from the great, I know not 
well how to receive, or in what terms to acknowledge. 

When, upon some slight encouragement, I first visited 
your Lordship, I was overpowered, like the rest of man- 
kind, by the enchantment of your address; and could 
not forbear to wish that I might boast myself Le vain- 
queur du vainqueur de la terre, — that I might obtain 
that regard for which I saw the world contending ; but 
I found my attendance so little encouraged, that neither 
pride nor modesty would suffer me to continue it. When 
I had once addressed your Lordship in publick, I had 
exhausted all the art of pleasing which a retired and un- 
courtly scholar can possess. I had done all that I could ; 
and no man is well pleased to have his all neglected, be it 
ever so little. 

Seven years, my Lord, have now past, since I waited 
in your outward rooms, or was repulsed from your door ; 
during which time I have been pushing on my work 



LETTER WRITING 263 

through difficulties, of which it is useless to complain, 
and have brought it at last, to the verge of publication, 
without one act of assistance, one word of encourage- 
ment, or one smile of favour. Such treatment I did not 
expect, for I never had a Patron before. The shepherd 
in Virgil grew at last acquainted with Love, and found 
him a native of the rocks. 

Is not a Patron, my Lord, one who looks with un- 
concern on a man struggling for life in the water, and, 
when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help ? 
The notice which you have been pleased to take of my 
labours, had it been early, had been kind; but it has 
been delayed till I am indifferent, and cannot enjoy 
it ; till I am solitary, and cannot impart it ; till I am 
known, and do not want it. I hope it is no very cynical 
asperity not to confess obligations where no benefit has 
been received, or to be unwilling that the publick should 
consider me as owing that to a Patron, which Providence 
has enabled me to do for myself. 

Having carried on my work thus far with so little obli- 
gation to any favourer of learning, I shall not be disap- 
pointed though I should conclude it, if less be possible, 
with less ; for I have been long wakened from that dream 
of hope, in which I once boasted myself with so much 
exultation. 

My Lord 
Your Lordship's most humble 

most obedient servant 

Sam. Johnson. 

What suggestions does the following article give you 
about the art of writing personal or social letters? 

[From the London Times] 

We published the other day a letter from a Russian soldier at the 

front to an Englishman, speaking of the Russian soldiers' confidence 

in their English allies. The writer says that he is but little educated, 

and so cannot express himself as he ought to do ; yet his letter is 



264 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

faultless in its natural and graceful simplicity. No doubt he had 
not been educated to the point of supposing that writing must be 
different from ordinary speech ; and so he was able to say what he 
wished to say just as if he were talking. Education makes this 
difficult or impossible for many people. They fear that, if they write 
as they talk, they will seem illiterate ; and so they fall into a language 
which is literary in so far as it proves that they have read some news- 
papers. This language does not say what they wish to say, because 
only their ordinary speech would do that ; it " expresses their general 
sentiments" so that they seem to be the sentiments of a committee, 
•not of a man. It is always a paraphrase of their natural language; 
and that cannot be paraphrased without loss, because it is natural 
and the paraphrase artificial ; because when they have something to 
say, they find the right words for it at once, and any other words are 
wrong. A man accustomed to simple speech about simple things 
cannot suddenly change it for complex speech; and the literary 
language used by unpractised writers is an imitation of the complex 
speech used by practised writers in dealing with complex things. 
It is well enough where the thought is complex, but when it is ap- 
plied to plain statements of fact, it only weakens them. Thus, in 
reading letters from the front, we are surprised by their goodness 
when the writer writes as he would talk, and by their badness when 
he tries to imitate what he has read. In the first case he can tell 
us what has happened to him ; in the second, he gives us only generali- 
ties, because he is thinking of his style more than of what has happened 
to him. 

This Russian soldier was not thinking of his style. "It was pro- 
posed," he says, "that some one better educated than I should 
write to you in my name ; but I did not want that, and I h6pe you 
will be better pleased with the letter of an uneducated man like my- 
self. What I write is the real truth." A little more education, 
and he would not have been able to write the real truth, but only 
his notion of how some one else would express it. The real truth 
can only be told in those words which offer themselves to the teller. 
When he rejects them for other words which he supposes to be literary, 
he ceases to tell the truth at all. There is in writing, artlessness, 
which has the power of saying certain simple things ; and there is 
art, which is command of a speech capable of expressing both thoughts 



LETTER WRITING 265 

and emotions;, but the man who has given up artlessness without 
acquiring art can say nothing and express nothing. He has lost one 
form of speech without gaining the other. We say that this loss is 
all the fault of education ; but that is not quite fair. When a man 
is taught to read, he is not taught to read trash. He does that either 
because he is not educated far enough, or because there is something 
in him which likes trash. What we need in our education is that a 
clear distinction should be made between the language proper to 
thought and emotion, and the language proper to simple statements 
of fact. The rule should be — write as you would speak,, so long 
as you can say what you have to say in your ordinary speech. There 
is not one language for talking and another for writing. The lan- 
guage only differs when you have to write something more than you 
would say. The aim of writing is not to show that you have read, 
but to say what you have to say as clearly and briefly as you can. 
The great mass of bad writing is produced by people who have noth- 
ing to say, and who therefore can use neither the language of ordinary 
talk nor the language of emotion and thought. What they do use 
is an imitation of the latter, because they wish to convince themselves 
and others that they are expressing emotion or thought, when they 
are not. This imitation, unfortunately, is very catching, and is 
often caught by people who have something quite simple to say, 
and who therefore become unable to say it. Writing, when it is art- 
less, is very easy ; when it is art, it is very difficult ; but when it is 
neither, it is impossible. 

Examine the following letters carefully and tell wherein 
they do not conform to the rules you have learned about 
letter writing. Make the necessary corrections. 

1 

Lowell, Sept. 4, 191 7. 
I accept with pleasure the invitation of Mr. and Mrs. 
Paul Prince to be present at the marriage of their daugh- 
ter Helen to Dr. Thurlow Henderson on Sept. 18, at 
eight o'clock, at St. James' Church. 

Helen Perkins 



266 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Hints, i. Where should the date be placed? Should 
the date be written out in full ? 

2. In what person should formal letters be written? 

2 

Baltimore, April 25, 1916. 
S. T. Jones and Co., 

27 Cedar St., Little Rock, Ark., 
Dear Sirs : 

I would like to secure a position with you during the 
coming summer. I have had some experience in working 
in a dry-goods store in Baltimore and feel sure that I 
could give you satisfactory service. I could easily pro- 
cure recommendations from former employers, both in 
the dry-goods store I have spoken of and in the drug- 
store where I was employed two years ago. I could 
come to you any time after June 1st and could stay 
until September 1st. 

Yours truly, 

James Brennan. 

Hints. 1. To what address should S. T. Jones & Co. 
reply ? 

2. Does James Brennan make specific or general remarks 
about the dry-goods store and drug-store he worked in? 

3. Are two recommendations in the bush as good as one 
in the hand ? 

3 
157 Arizona Street, Miami, Florida. 
June 18, 1918. 
Mr. John Smith, 
Dear Sir : 

Yours of the 14th instant to hand and contents noted. 
In reply would say that your proposition is a fair one and 
would be pleased to hear further from you. Meanwhile 
we are shipping you a catalogue which we hope you will 



LETTER WRITING 267 

find helpful. We would call your attention especially to 
page 18. 

Hoping to hear from you soon and oblige, 
Yours truly, 

Juniper Dow Co. 
per L. B. Adams. 

Hints. 1. What is Mr. Smith's address? 

2. Try to parse the first and second sentences. What is 
wrong with them? 

3. In the third sentence, could a better expression than 
" shipping " be used? Could you combine the third and 
fourth sentences? 

4. What is wrong with the last part (Hoping . . . yours 
truly) ? 

4 

St. Louis Jan. 15. '16 
Dear Bill, 

I have an awful lot 2 do 2 night, but I guess I can 
squeeze in a letter 2 you. We've been having some 
great times here & have wished you could B with us. 
How is everything going on? I xpect 2 B in this part 
of the world a little while longer & then will leave for a 

new field. 

Good bye 
Tom. 

Hints. 1. Does Tom say anything in his letter? 

2. Why is it bad form to use abbreviations? 

3. Taken all in all what would Bill think, and how would 
Bill feel on receiving a letter like this? 

5 

St. Cloud, Minn., Nov. 29, 1917. 
Dear Aunt Mary : — 

I had a splendid time on my birthday. It came on 
Saturday, and a number of the boys and girls in the 



268 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

neighborhood took me out for a picnic. We went up the 
river in canoes until we came to a spring near an old de- 
serted cabin, and there cooked our coffee and had our 
lunch. Later in the afternoon we came home, and all 
of us sat down to a fine dinner mother had specially pre- 
pared for us. 

This year I am enjoying my work very much, es- 
pecially my mathematics. A great many of the problems 
we have to do are like puzzles, and solving them is very 
good fun. 

I was fortunate enough to make the High School foot- 
ball team this fall. I played guard. Our season was a 
fairly successful one : we beat Morrill Academy 6-0, 
Hopetown High School 7-6, Loringville School 20-0, 
and Broadmead H. S. 3-0. We were defeated by Lorton 
14-13 ; but every one who saw the game admitted that 
we should have won, because the Lorton team did not 
play fairly. The referee did not know the rules very 
well and made some rotten decisions. Their team did 
not deserve its first touchdown, because one of their 
men held our star end, who could easily have stopped 
their runner. Our captain protested, but it didn't do 
any good. 

I must stop now and do my Latin for tomorrow. 
With much love to all 

Affectionately your nephew 
Donald. 

Hints. 1. " Every intimate letter is really suffused with 
two personalities, one of which is that of the recipient." 
In this letter has Donald thought of Aunt Mary, her per- 
sonality, her likes and dislikes, her tastes, or has he merely 
written about what is interesting to him? 

2. Is the word rotten an elegant expression? 

3. What is the subject and what the predicate in " With 
much love to you all, Affectionately your nephew"? 



LETTER WRITING 269 

Remember that that part of a letter must be as gram- 
matically complete as any other part. (It is perfectly 
good form to end with " Affectionately your nephew/' 
if what comes before is grammatically complete.) What 
comment can you make on the punctuation of the last 
three lines? 

4. Can you think of a better connective than the first 
and, that might be used in the second sentence ? 

LESSON III 

Telephoning. There are few conditions under which 
the average American is seen to greater disadvantage than 
when he is telephoning. You are all familiar with the self- 
conscious youth at a public telephone, who stutters and 
hesitates, and hardly knows what to say next. You are 
also familiar with the poor bored man with his ear against 
the receiver, obliged to answer those foolish questions 
" How is everybody? " " Can you guess who this is? " 

The trouble is that people usually do not stop to think, 
before they telephone, of what they want to say. You 
were advised to think out your message and to arrange it 
in order before you started to write a letter. Do the 
same thing before you telephone. If you are making an 
appointment, have at your fingers' ends, or, if necessary, 
on a piece of paper, the times when you are free. If you 
are trying to secure information about a certain subject, 
be sure that you know beforehand the questions you are 
going to ask. If you are simply going to make a social 
call over the wire, try to have something to say that will 
be of real interest to the person at the other end. Do not 
ask unnecessary questions — remember you usually have 
to pay extra charges if you talk over three minutes. Be 



270 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

exact in your questions and in your answers, and see to it 
that, if possible, the information you secure is complete 
— not mere scraps. 

You must strive to adapt yourself to the speaker at the 
other end of the wire, and you must always be courteous. 
" Please/' and " Thank you " do not take up much time 
to say, but they help a great deal. 

i. Call up a doctor and explain to him the nature of an injury- 
one of your friends has received. Tell him also what you have done 
for him. 

2. Call up your friend's home and explain to his mother who is 
of a very nervous disposition, the nature of the injury he has sus- 
tained. 

3. Call up his father, a matter-of-fact business man, and tell 
him about the accident. 

4. Call up the fire department (" Fire Department, Emergency ! ") 
and tell them of a fire. 

5. Call up your neighbor, who is out of town, and tell him about 
a fire at his house. 

6. Call up the police station and inform someone in authority of the 
loss of a hand-bag ; an overcoat ; an automobile ; a pocketbook ; a dog. 

7. Call up a steamship agency and make inquiries about a trip 
to Bermuda, or Hawaii, or some place nearer home. 

8. Pretend you are a new student just arrived in town. Call up 
the office of the principal of the school and ask him what you should 
do. 

9. Call up your home and tell about your doings of the past 
week, and your plans and needs for the coming week. 

10. Call up the principal of a young ladies' seminary and ask if 
you may call on one of her students. 

11. Call up a dentist and cancel an appointment. Give him 
your reasons. 

12. You and your friends in the dormitory are to have a "spread." 
Call up various stores and order what you want. 

13. Invite a friend to a dance; to an athletic contest; to go 
skating ; to dinner ; to a theater party. 




H 

W 



c/3 

W 
O 

< 

w 

H 



LETTER WRITING 271 

14. Invite some one to act as a judge at a school debate. 

15. Invite some one to address a meeting of the school religious 
society. 

16. Call up the manager of an athletic team of a rival school and 
arrange for a contest. 

17. Call up the box-office of a theater and ask to have seats re- 
served for you. 

18. Call up the business manager of a summer camp and make 
inquiries about it. 

19. Call up your English teacher and consult with him about a 
theme you wish to write. 

20. Call up a friend and congratulate him on his being elected to 
a school office . 

21. Call up the principal of your school and explain why you 
were late for a certain class. 

22. Call up a real estate dealer and make inquiries about houses 
or lots suitable for fraternity or sorority purposes. 

23. Call up a man from whom you would like to secure employ- 
ment. If necessary, make an appointment to see him. 

24. Call up some friend and tell him about the death of some 
man or woman well known to you both. 

25. Pretend you are a newspaper reporter, and call up different 
people who know something about the matter you are seeking in- 
formation on, and ask them about an epidemic; the life of some 
alumnus of the school; an athletic contest; a dance; a literary 
society meeting; a religious society meeting; a lecture; some new 
purchase that has been made by one of the school departments; a 
new building that is being erected at the school; the new athletic 
field. 

LESSON IV 

Look over the list of subjects for Letters, given in the 
Appendix ; select three (one for a formal, one for a busi- 
ness, and one for a personal or social letter) ; and, paying 
heed to the directions that were given you in Lesson I, 
write them out. 



APPENDIX I 



ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, AND VERBS 
IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlat] 


badi 






evil > 


worse 


worst 


m J 






far 


farther 


farthest 


good\ 
well J 


better 


best 


fore 


former 


/ foremosi 
I first 


late 


f later 
I latter 


f latest 
I last 


little 


less 


least 


many 1 
much J 


more 


most 


near 


nearer 


/ nearest 
1 next 


old 


/ older 
I elder 


f oldest 
I eldest 



The following are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive 
degree, and as adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees. 



Positive 
(forth) 

(in) 



Comparative 
further . 

inner 



Superlative 

furthest 
/ innermost 
I inmost 



273 



274 
Positive 

(out) 
(up) 



Positive 
badly 
iU (evil) . 
far | 
forth J 

late 

little 
much 

nigh 
well 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



Comparative 

/ outer 
I utter 

upper 



Superlative 
' outmost 
outermost 
utmost 
> uttermost 
/ upmost 
I uppermost 



IRREGULAR ADVERBS 

Comparative Superlative 



worse 

f farther 
I further 

later 

less 
more 

nigher 
better 



worst 

{ farthest 
I furthest 
/ latest 
llast 

least 

most 
/ nighest 
I next 

best 



TROUBLESOME VERBS 



Present 
am 
arise 
bear 
begin 
bend 
bid 
bind 
bite 
bleed 
blow 
br°ak 
bring 



Past 


Past Participle 


was 


been 


arose 


arisen 


bore 


borne, born 


began 


begun 


bent 


bended, bent 


bade 


bidden 


bound 


bound 


bit 


bitten 


bled 


bled 


blew 


blown 


broke 


broken 


brought 


brought 





APPENDIX 


I 


Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


build 


built 


built 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


climb 


climbed 


climbed 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug 


digged 


dive 


dived (dove) 


dived 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


drown 


drowned 


drowned 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fly 


flew 


flown 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


harig (execute) 


hanged 


hanged 


hang (suspend) 


hung 


hung 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


hide 


hid 


hidden 



275 



276 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt 


knelt 


knit 


knit 


knit 


know 


knew 


known 


lay- 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie (recline) 


lay 


lain 


lie (prevaricate) 


lied 


lied 


lift 


lifted 


lifted 


light 


lighted (lit) 


lighted (lit) 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


pay 


paid 


paid 


plead 


pleaded 


pleaded 


put 


put 


put 


raise 


raised 


raised 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


say 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


• sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 





APPENDIX I 

• 




Present 


Past Past Participle 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang 


sung 


sink 


sank 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


spend 


. spent 


spent 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


strike 


struck 


struck 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


f swelled \ 
\ swollen J 


swim 


swam 


swum 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told ' 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wish 


wished 


wished 


write 


wrote 


written 



277 



APPENDIX II 

SUBJECTS FOR THEMES 

GENERAL SUBJECTS 

Look back at Chapter VI, Lesson IV, and Chapter VIII, 
Lesson IV, for suggestions about point of view. 

i. Waiting for the train. 

2. Indoors on a rainy day. 

3. Outdoors in the rain. 

4. From my window at night. 

5. Buying a new hat. 

6. A candy store. 

7. The longest day of the year. 

8. Through the telescope. 

9. Through the microscope. 

10. An Indian chief. 

11. A relic of the past. 

12. How the members of this school can help in the economy 
campaign. 

13. A wave. 

14. Wind in the wheat. 

15. The charge of the light brigade. 

16. The Rough Riders. 

17. Big guns. 

18. A deserted house. 

19. An old-fashioned garden. 

20. A tramp. 

21. The best scholar in my class. 

22. A poplar tree. 

23. The old pine. 

24. A newcomer. 

278 



APPENDIX II 279 

25. A mischievous boy. 

26. A bad scrape. 

27. A typical New England farmer. 

28. The newer occupations for women. 

29. A tired horse. 

30. The importance of fashions. 

31. Eight o'clock on a winter morning. 

32. The sky on a frosty evening. 

33. Preparations for papering a room. 

34. An old barn. 

35. An old bridge. 

36. Sounds on a cold winter morning. 

37. A coasting experience. 

38. A gust of wind. 

39. A dusty day. 

40. A sandy road. 

41. A generous act. 

42. A ragamuffin. 

43. My favorite author. 

44. My favorite book. 

45. My favorite character. 

46. My hero. 

47. My idea of perfect bliss. 

48. A picturesque wall. 

49. In crowded street cars men should offer their seats to ladies. 

50. A smooth pond. 

51. Den Rock in winter. 

52. A grove of evergreens. 

53. A full moon. 

54. The face I know best. 

55. A dollar bill, — its experiences. 

56. A pool of water, — what it saw. 

57. A dreary scene. 

58. A cheerful scene. 

59. A street corner. 

60. A bit of sunshine. 

61. ^Esthetic dancing. 

62. A laughable sight. 



280 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



63. 


A pair of old shoes, — their journeys. 


64. 


The oldest person I know. 


65. 


After a shower. 


66. 


A queer trick. 


67. 


A bonfire. 


68. 


The patient horse. 


69. 


My most intimate friend. 


70. 


A stray dog. 


7i. 


An observation of ten minutes. 


72. 


A bird's nest. 


73- 


A glimpse from a car window. 


74. 


A frozen swamp. 


75. 


A walk in the shadows. 


76. 


An adventure. 


77- 


An exciting experience. 


78. 


A good joke. 


79. 


Overheard in passing. 


80. 


A sad experience. 


81. 


The queerest person I know. 


82. 


An automobile breakdown. 


^ 


How ink is made. 


84. 


What a looking-glass could tell. 


85. 


The adventures of a counterfeit dime. 


86. 


A joke on me. 


87. 


A modern fable. 


88. 


An up-to-date hat. 


89. 


My bookcase. 


90. 


My favorite walk. 


91. 


One of the greatest influences of my life. 


92. 


Three ways of lighting houses. 


93. 


Street entertainers. 


94. 


This school should organize a dramatic club 


95- 


Lynching. 


96. 


Locked out. 


97- 


Behind time. 


98. 


A ghost I saw. 


99. 


A boy detective. 


100. 


My dream. 



APPENDIX II 281 



NARRATION 



1. In a runaway. 

2. A skating accident. 

3. From the oak tree to the library table. 

4. Hunting for my first job. 

5. How wireless saved the ship. 

6. Hide and seek with a burglar. 

7. The accident at the switch. 

8. A night on the bread line. 

9. A dog fight. 

10. A story from today's newspaper. 

11. The autobiography of the school bell. 

12. The autobiography of the east wind. 

13. The autobiography of a worn doorstep. 

14. The boyhood of Mark Twain. 

15. Two dogs discuss their master. 

16. A deaf lady and a street-car conductor. 

17. Tom Sawyer meets Little Lord Fauntleroy. 

18. An anecdote about a child. 

19. The story of a prank. 

20. A school experience. 

21. The occasion when I was most frightened. 

22. The occasion when I was most surprised. 

23. The occasion when I was most disappointed. 

24. The occasion when I was most proud. 

25. Lost. 

26. Told by a piece of driftwood. 

27. A misdirected letter. 

28. An upset. 

29. A lonely ride. 

30. On thin ice. 

3 1 . What the fisherman told me. 

32. A practical joke. 

33. A day on a canal boat. 

34. A case of discipline. 

35. A week in Mars. 

36. When my ship comes in. 



282 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

37. A modern fairy-tale. 

38. A wedding. 

39. What I would do with #100. 

40. My first biscuits. 

41. Because I forgot. 

42. A day at the beach. 

43. A runaway automobile. 

44. What I did on March 17. 

45. Going for the mail. 

46. The soldier's story. 

47. An adventure on "Old Ironsides.' ' 

48. An adventure on a dreadnought. 

49. An adventure in a Zeppelin. 

50. An athletic contest. 

DESCRIPTION 

1. A thunder storm. 

2. A hot Sunday in church. 

3. Watching the clouds. 

4. The fog. 

5. A glorious sunset. 

6. The cover of some magazine. 

7. From the fifth story of a burning building. 

8. An English sparrow. 

9. Curfew. 

10. The interior of an iceberg. 

11. Subterranean passages. 

12. The man in the moon. 

13. A hornet's nest. 

14. A sheep-herder. 

15. The haunted house. 

16. A ferry boat. 

17. My favorite picture. 

18. Departure of an ocean liner. 

19. The land where lost things go. 

20. The High School building. 

21. Morning on a mountain top. 

22. My desk. 

23. A grain elevator. 






APPENDIX II 283 

24. A bed of flowers. 

25. The line at the ticket window. 

26. A parade. 

27. The school bell. 

28. The principal's office. 

29. A relic of the War between the States. 

30. A canoe race. 
3-1. My room. 

32. An auction. 

33. A barnyard in winter. 

34. My favorite animal at the Zoo. 

35. An operating room at a hospital. 

36. The oldest building in town. 

37. The crowd at a circus. 

38. My vegetable garden. 

39. A cotton field. 

40. The school kitchen. 

41. The snow-man. 

42. A sanitarium. 

43. Street musicians. 

44. A pine grove. 

45. The house I was born in. 

46. A fruit store, 

47. A troop train. 

48. The United States army uniforms. 

49. An electric light bulb. 

50. The school library. 

EXPOSITION 

1. How to pitch curves. 

2. How to build a camp fire. 

3. The duties of an ambulance driver. 

4. The advantages of a city playground. 

5. A British " tank-car." 

6. How I feel when I have not prepared my lesson. 

7. How I feel when I am having my picture taken. 

8. How I feel when waiting at the dentist's. 



284 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

9. A torpedo. 

10. The work of a submarine chaser. 

11. How to pack a trunk. 

12. A landslide. 

13. How to serve in tennis. 

14. How to broil a steak. 

15. Explain the algebraic formula 

(x + 3;) (x + y) = x 2 + 2 xy + y 1 . 

16. Explain the difference between the duties of a referee and those 
of an umpire. 

17. How a boat is steered. 

18. How a coaster brake works. 

19. How a gyroscope works. 

20. A sneak. 

21. Irrigation. 

22. The effects of smoking. 

23. The effects of lack of exercise. 

24. Who's who in school. 

25. Fire-patrol boats. 

26. How my home town is governed. 

27. Tides — how they are caused and their effect. 

28. How gold is obtained, coined, and used. 

29. School honor. 

30. Why I dread examinations. 

31. What the carpenter did. 

32. The study I enjoy most. 

33. Preparedness. 

34. A day with the lighthouse keeper. 

35. Mending a tire. 

36. How to work one's way through school. 

37. How railroad signals work. 
S^. A swallow's nest. 

39. A watch. 

40. The Swiss military system. 

41. How cotton is picked and ginned. 

42. Making hay. 

43. How to run an automobile. 

44. Cutting ice. 






APPENDIX II 285 

45. A fireplace. 

46. How sugar is refined. 

47. A double-runner. 

48. The bank vaults. 

49. How to build a tennis court. 

50. How trenches are made. 

ARGUMENTATION 

1. Every one should learn how to swim. 

2. What I intend to become. Why. 

3. The evils of billboard advertising. 

4. Why we should have a safe and sane 4th of July. 

5. The automobile is a better one than the automobile. 

6. Fairy tales should not be told to children. 

7. The owning of firearms by the students of school should 

be forbidden. 

8. Department stores injure the trade of smaller towns. 

9. Every student in school should partake in some form of ath- 
letics. 

10. Should a lie ever be told? 

11. Every boy should learn a trade. 

12. A plea for tramps. 

13. This school should adopt the honor system in examinations. 

14. Novel reading is a waste of time. 

1 5. Athletes seldom secure high scholastic honors. 

16. Do colored-picture supplements to Sunday papers exert the 
best influence? 

1 7 . Should a pupil try simply to pass ? 

18. Athletic, contests between schools should be abolished. 

19. Admission to colleges should be by examinations only. 

20. Military training in schools should be encouraged. 

21. Labor unions are on the whole beneficial to workingmen. 

22. Libraries and museums should be open on Sundays. 

23. This school should provide more practical courses in its curric- 
ulum. 

24. There should be an educational test as a qualification for voting. 

25. The case against the fly. 



286 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

26. Church and school property should be taxed. 

27. The United States should maintain a larger standing army. 

28. The United States should maintain a larger navy. 

29. Vivisection that involves pain should be prohibited by law. 

30. Novels should not be dramatized. 

31. The case against the rat. 

32. This school should substitute military training for athletics. 
S3. Are grades in society necessary ? 

34. In this school a closer relation between students and faculty 
should be encouraged. 

35. Should peace societies be encouraged? 

36. A sailboat provides more fun than a motorboat. 

37. It is better to attend a high school in one's home town than 
to go away to a boarding school. 

38. The afternoon session in this school should be from 4 to 6 
instead of from 2 to 4. 

39. The government should provide for the support of the poor. 

40. It is needless to own books when a good public library is avail- 
able. 

41. This school should have its weekly holiday on Monday instead 
of Saturday. 

42. Children under 14 should be prohibited from working in fac- 
tories. 

43. The value of dictographs. 

44. This school should adopt an athletic eligibility rule based on 
scholarship. 

45. Free public employment offices should be maintained by each 
community. 

46. Are games of chance morally right ? 

47. Is the pledge of total abstinence morally right? 

48. Are fictitious compositions useful ? 

49. Social functions involving lavish expense are unjustifiable. 

50. No student attending this school should be allowed to repre- 
sent the school on any of its organizations during his first year of 
residence. 



APPENDIX II 287 

LETTERS 

1. To your home, telling about your first day at school. 

2. Accept an informal invitation to dinner. 

3. Regret your inability to accept an invitation to visit a friend. 

4. From camp, telling what you are doing and what you are 
seeing and learning. 

5. From a farm, telling what you are doing and what you are 
seeing and learning. 

6. To your parents, asking them to buy you a canoe. 

7. To your parents, asking them to let you join a military com- 
pany. 

8. To your parents, asking them to take you on a trip to Europe. 

9. To an athletic outfitter, asking for a complete set of foot-ball 
supplies. 

10. To your sister, giving an account of a wedding you have at- 
tended. 

11. To a friend, telling how you are employed during the summer 
holidays. 

12. To a friend, telling about a trip down River. 

13. A letter placed in a sealed bottle and cast overboard from a 
sinking ship. 

14. To a schoolmate who is away, telling about the death of a 
common friend. 

15. To a scientist, telling about an invention you have thought 
out. 

16. To a girl friend, congratulating her on her engagement. 

17. To the parents of a friend who has recently died (a letter of 
condolence) . 

18. To an opponent in a foot-ball game, apologizing for your rough 
play. 

19. To a famous author or actor, asking for his autograph. 

20. To your parents, asking for some money. 

21. To a soldier in the trenches. 

22. To a friend who has not seen your school, telling him what it is 
like. 

23. To some business house, applying for a position. 

24. An answer to an advertisement in this morning's paper. 



288 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

25. A Sunday night letter home, telling of the events of the past 
week. 

26. To a teacher in a former school, explaining what course you 
like best in the school you attend now. 

27. To your little sister, to amuse and to cheer her. 

28. To your parents, telling them what occupation you want to 
take up. 

29. To your parents, telling them what college you want to enter. 

30. To a friend, telling him about your visit to an interesting 
factory. 

31. To a friend, inviting him to come to the big game of the season. 

32. To the manager of the base-ball team at a rival school, trying 
to arrange for a game. 

^. To a friend who has never been in the North, telling him what 
a cold winter is like. 

34. To a friend who is blind, telling him about a long tramp through 
the woods. 

35. To a friend who is deaf, telling him about a long tramp through 
the woods. 

36. To an athletic outfitter, complaining about the quality of some 
of his goods. 

37. To a friend in high school, explaining the difference between 
a high school and an academy. 

38. To a friend in an academy, explaining the difference between 
an academy and a high school. 

39. A communication to a school paper, disapproving of some 
school organization or institution. 

40. To an employer, asking for an advance in wages. 

41. To a friend, recommending that he read a certain book. 

42. To a friend, telling her all about the great game. 

43. To an instructor, asking him what you should do to make up 
a condition you received in his course. 

44. To the principal of the school, explaining why you cannot re- 
turn on time after the vacation. 

45. To a landlady, asking for rooms. 

46. To your hostess, after visiting at her home during your vaca- 
tion. 

47. To a homesick friend, bidding her cheer up. 



APPENDIX II 289 

48. To your English teacher, telling him of a plot to a story you 
have thought out. 

49. To the faculty of your school, asking them to excuse your 
absence from recitations on a certain day. 

50. To a friend, urging him to come to your school. 



APPENDIX III 

TELEGRAMS AND ADVERTISEMENTS 

TELEGRAMS 

A telegram is really a letter. Telegraph companies allow you, 
for a certain sum, to send a message of ten words or less (exclusive of 
the name and address of the person to whom you are sending the 
message, and your signature) but charge for any additional word 
over ten you may use. Besides regular telegrams, you can send 
"day-letters" and "night-letters" (messages of fifty words). The 
rate for the latter is usually the same as that for regular ten-word 
telegrams, and for the former, once and a half the rate. Telegrams are 
delivered immediately, day-letters sometime during the day, and 
night-letters the first thing the next morning. 

When you send telegrams and day or night letters, you must be 
very careful to express yourself concisely and clearly. In all kinds 
of composition, form plays a very important part ; in telegrams form 
is subordinated to matter. As a result, in sending telegrams you fre- 
quently have to violate rules of grammar and composition : subjects 
of sentences may be left out ; verbs may be dispensed with ; preposi- 
tions may be dropped. Pick out the really significant matters that 
you wish the recipient at the other end to get ; but be sure that, in 
striving to be brief and to the point, you give a complete message, 
and at the same time do not say anything misleading. 

In the following telegram only the italicized words are necessary 
to give a clear and complete message. 

/ shall come home on Wednesday at three o'clock in the afternoon. 

Please have a carriage waiting for me at the station. I have had a 

very pleasant time. 

290 



APPENDIX III 



291 



The sender of this telegram is entitled to one more word ; but he 
has nothing more to say, so he had better let the message go as it is. 



Andover, July 19, 191 7. 
Mrs. J. B. Arthur, 

67 Morgan St., Black Ridge, N. J. 

I come Wednesday three afternoon. 
Have carriage waiting station. 

/. B. Arthur Jr. 



[A telegram is a letter sent to a distance ; to telegraph is to write 
a letter to a distance. The Greek noun (gramma) means a letter ; the 
Greek verb (grapho) means / write.] 

ADVERTISEMENTS 

You are not very frequently obliged to write advertisements. But 
if you lose something which you want to recover, or find something 
which you feel sure the owner would like to recover, you advertise in 
the Lost and Found columns of a newspaper. If you have something 
you are anxious to dispose of at as great an advantage as you can, 
either by selling it or by exchanging it ; or if you wish to obtain some- 
thing that you cannot procure at a store, you advertise in the For 
Sale or the Barter and Exchange or the Want columns. If you are 
anxious to do some work to help pay your expenses while you are in 
school, and do not know of anyone to whom you might apply for em- 
ployment, you are forced to make your wants known through a 
Situation Wanted advertisement. 

In writing out advertisements you must be brief, for advertising 
is expensive business ; but you must, at the same time, give a complete 
and absolutely accurate description of the object you have lost or 
found or which you wish to buy, sell, or exchange. If you are seeking 
employment, you must state accurately what kind of work you can 
do, and what your qualifications are. For further enlightenment 
on the question of advertising, consult the columns of any Sunday 
newspaper. 



APPENDIX IV 

VERSIFICATION 

Versification is the art of making verses, or lines of poetry. Pros- 
ody is that part of grammar which treats of the structure and move- 
ment of verse. 

Poetry differs from prose structurally in that it conforms to cer- 
tain rules of meter or measure. There is, that is to say, to poetry 
a certain measured movement, a regular succession of accents or 
sounds which we call rhythm. The arrangement of long or short 
syllables, or of accented and unaccented syllables is uniform. 

Groups of syllables, of similar length and structure, constitute 
metrical units of verse, and are called feet. A line consisting of a 
certain number of metrical feet, disposed according to metrical rules, 
is called a verse. And a group of verses, forming a division of a song 
or a poem, and agreeing in meter, rhyme, number of lines, etc., with 
other divisions, is called a stanza. 

A a A A 

Now let I us sing | " Long live | the king! " 

A • A A 

And Gil | pin long | live he. 

A A A A 

And when | he next J doth ride | abroad, 

A a A 

May I I be there | to see. 

This is a stanza of four verses. In the first and third there are 
four feet ; in the second and fourth, three feet. The separation of a 
verse into feet is called scansion. 

When there is but one foot in a verse, it is called a monometer; 
when two, a dimeter; three, a trimeter; four, a tetrameter; five, a 
pentameter; six, a hexameter. 

292 



APPENDIX IV 



293 



The feet in the stanza just given are made up of two syllables, the 
first unstressed, the second stressed. A foot of this kind is called an 
iambus. 

If a foot is made up of a stressed and unstressed syllable, it is called 
a trochee. 

A AAA 

Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers, 
If a foot is made up of two unstressed syllables and one stressed 
syllable, it is called an anapest. 

A A 

In the days | of King Charles. 

If a foot is made up of one stressed and two unstressed syllables, 
it is called a dactyl. 

A A 

Take her up [ tenderly. 
A spondee is a foot made up of two stressed syllables. " I too." 
An amphibrach is a foot made up of a stressed syllable between two 

A 
unstressed syllables. " Prophetic." 

The adjectives derived from the names of the various feet are 
iambic, trochaic, anapestic, dactylic. These adjectives are applied 
to lines or verses in which the majority of the feet are of that special 
kind : i.e. the line 

Now let us sing Long live the king, 
is an iambic line ; and if we wish to note also the number of feet there 
are in the line, we call it an iambic tetrameter. 

Spondees and amphibrachs are occasionally found in verses where 
the prevailing foot is something else. In English, the substitution 
of one foot for another in a verse frequently occurs. 

A metrical pause in a verse is called a caesura. 
Nought but tradition remains 1 1 of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre. 

When a pause comes at the end of a verse, the line is called an end- 
stopped line. When there is no pause at the end of a verse, the line 
is called a jrun-on line. 

Time has laid his hand 
Upon my heart, gently, not smiting it, 
But as a harper lays his open palm 
Upon his harp, to deaden its vibrations. 



2Q4 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

The first and third lines are run-on lines ; the second and fourth 
are end-stopped lines. 

Rhyme is not absolutely necessary to modern English poetry; 
but it is so universally used, that it may be considered almost an 
essential feature of all kinds of versification except blank verse. 
Blank verse is verse that does not rhyme, but the term is specially 
applied to unrhymed iambic pentameter, like that found in Milton's 
Paradise Lost. 

Rhymes may be of various kinds. They are indicated in explana- 
tions of rhyming schemes by italicized letters: i.e. abab indicates 
that the first and third verses, and the second and fourth verses in a 
stanza, rhyme; abcb indicates that only the second and fourth 
verses rhyme. Rhymes sometimes occur within the verse. 

Now let us sing Long live the king. 

[For exercises in recognizing forms of verse, and for exercises in 
scansion, the students might be referred to some anthology of poetry 
— The Oxford Book of English Verse, for instance — from which they 
may pick examples and scan passages from them.] 



APPENDIX V 

GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS 

GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL TERMS 

(Not discussed in the body of this work) 

Abstract. A summary or an epitome ; a brief. " He made an 
abstract of every book he had read." 

Abstract noun. (See Concrete noun.) 

A fortiori. A form of the a pari argument (see A pari), the " much 
more " argument. " If God so clothe the grass of the field, which 
today is, and tomorrow is cast into the oven, will he not much more 
clothe you, O ye of little faith? " 

Alexandrine verse. An iambic hexameter. (See Appendix, sec- 
tion Versification.) 

Allegory. A description of one thing under the image of another. 
" I am the vine, ye are the branches." (The properties of the vine 
and the relation of the branches are transferred to the person of 
Christ and his apostles.) An allegory is a prolonged metaphor. 
(See Figure of speech.) Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is a celebrated 
allegory. 

Alliteration. The repetition of the same letter at frequent inter- 
vals. " Around the rugged rocks, the ragged rascal ran." 

Allusion. A reference to something supposed to be known but 
not specifically mentioned. " They were like David and Jonathan " : 
{i.e. they were fast friends as David and Jonathan were fast friends). 

Ambiguity (Ambiguous). Doubtfulness or uncertainty as to the 
meaning of a word or passage, arising from its admitting of more 
than one meaning. " The teacher says the Kaiser is a fool." (The 
teacher says, " The Kaiser is a fool." " The teacher," says the 
Kaiser, " is a fool.") 

295 



296 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Amplify. Make fuller. 

Analogy. An agreement or likeness between things in some 
circumstances or effects when the things are otherwise entirely 
different. " Learning enlightens the mind." (It is to the mind 
what light is to the eye, enabling it to discover things before hidden.) 

Anapest. A metrical foot made up of two short and one long 
syllable. (See Appendix, section Versification.) " In the days, etc." 

Anticlimax. A passage in which the ideas become less important 
and striking at the close. " If once a man indulge in murder, he 
comes very soon to think little of robbing; from robbing he comes 
to drinking and Sabbath breaking, and from that to incivility and 
procrastination." 

Antithesis. A contrast of words or sentiments occurring in the 
same sentence. " The prodigal robs his heir; the miser robs himself." 

Antonym. A word of opposite meaning. " Empty — full; 
good — bad." 

A pari. An argument from analogy ; (see Analogy) an argument 
from history. It is the same thing as saying like things have like 
results. " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the first his Cromwell, 
and George the third — may profit by their example." 

A posteriori. Induction; inductive reasoning. Reasoning from 
particular facts collected and interpreted for the purpose. " He 
was a hundred miles away at the time of the murder, therefore he 
could not have committed it." (The reverse of a priori.) 

Apostrophe. (See Figure of speech.) 

A priori. Deduction; deductive reasoning. Reasoning from 
general principles. " He will be sick, for he has eaten many green 
apples." (The reverse of a posteriori.) 

Archaism. A word or form of speech no longer in common use. 
" Chirurgeon " (surgeon). 

Asyndeton. A passage which omits the connective. " I came, 
I saw, I conquered." 

Balanced sentence. A sentence so arranged that its clauses have 
the same construction and are of about the same length. " John 
saw a bear; James killed it." (A contrast or comparison is not 
necessarily implied, as is the case in antithesis.) 

Ballad. A popular kind of narrative poem adapted for recitation 
or singing. The term is usually applied to that kind of poetry which 



APPENDIX V 



297 



has sprung up among a people; a poem that really has no author, 
for different people in different ages have contributed towards its 
making. 

Barbarism. A word that is not permissible in careful speech or 
writing ; this includes obsolete words, new and unestablished words, 
new formations from good words. " Disremember, aviate, travel- 
ogue." (The reverse of a word in good use.) 

Begging the question. Assuming that which was to be proved in 
a discussion. " Students should not be given instruction in writing 
good English, because students cannot be taught to write good 
English." 

Beside the point. An argument that does not touch the issue. 
" The Massachusetts schools should have a holiday on February 12, 
because the Illinois schools do." 

Bibliography. A list of books, manuscripts, pamphlets, etc., 
dealing with a certain subject. The list should include the authors' 
names, the dates of the publications, etc. 

Bombast. Language above the dignity of the occasion. " We 
shall go on the field, we football heroes, and fight to the death for 
our dear old college." Sometimes applied to language that is loud 
and empty. " Now we will talk about the ' League to Enforce Peace,' 
with the soft pedal on peace, and the loud pedal on force." 

Burden of proof. A legal phrase to express the degree of proof 
necessary for one side as compared with that necessary for the other. 
It is expressed in the legal maxim He who affirms must prove. (Bald- 
win.) 

Cacophony. A combination of discordant sounds owing to the 
coming together of harsh letters or syllables. " He snarled and 
snorted and then crunched the scoundrel's bones." (The reverse of 
euphony.) 

Cadence. The fall of the voice in reading and speaking; the 
rhythmical flow of language. " How art thou fallen from heaven, 
,0 Lucifer, son of the morning ! " 

Caesura. A metrical break in a verse. (See Appendix, section 
Versification.) " This is the forest primeval, 1 1 the murmuring pines, 
etc." 

Catastrophe. The final event, usually of a disastrous nature, in a 
romance or a dramatic piece. 



298 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Cause and effect. That which produces a result, and that which 
is produced by a cause. " A strikes B ; B is wounded." (The blow 
was the cause ; the wound is the effect.) 

Circumstantial evidence. Evidence obtained from circumstances 
which usually attend facts of a particular nature, from which arises 
a certain presumption. It does not give an absolutely sure proof, 
but points in that direction. 
Citation. Quotation. 

Climax. A passage in which the parts are so arranged that each 
one rises above its predecessor in impressiveness. Also, the highest 
point. " Tribulation worketh patience, patience experience, and 
experience hope." 

Cogency. Power of compelling conviction ; force. 
Coining words. Making new words, or using words in a new 
sense. 

" 'Twas brillig and the slithy toves 
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe. 
All mimsy were the borogoves, 
And the mome raths outgrabe" 

" I shall execute my poor mustachio." 

Collective noun. (See Concrete noun.) 

Comma blunder. Separating by means of commas complete 
statements that are not grammatically joined. " The birds are 
singing, the cat is asleep on the wall, the sun is shining." 

Conciseness. The expressing of much in few words. (The re- 
verse of copiousness.) 

Concrete noun. A concrete noun is a name which stands for a 
thing. An abstract noun is a name which stands for an attri- 
bute of a thing: " lion " and "light" are concrete nouns; 
" strength " and " brightness " are abstract nouns. A collective 
noun is the name of a group of objects considered as one — " class," 
" army." 

Connotation. An implication or a suggestion of something more 
than is actually said. " His looks were black." (Black implies or 
suggests gloomy darkness accompanied by something terrible. The 
same idea could be conveyed by a sentence reading: He looked as 
though he would inspire terror and gloom.) (See Denotation.) 



APPENDIX V 299 

Continuity. Uninterrupted connection or succession; a close 
union of parts. 

Copiousness. Diffuseness and discursiveness. (The reverse of 
conciseness.) 

Couplet. Two successive rhyming lines. (See Appendix, section 
Versification.) 

" A little learning is a dangerous thing; 
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring! " 

Crisis. The decisive moment ; the turning-point. 

Dactyl. A metrical foot made up of one long and two short 
syllables. (See Appendix, section Versification.) " Murmuring." 

Deduction. Deductive reasoning. (See A priori.) 

Denotation. Meaning that has been absolutely determined by 
authority ; the dictionary meaning of a word. (See Connotation.) 

Denouement. The solution of a mystery; the discovery of a 
plot ; the outcome. 

Dialect. Speech characterized by local peculiarities; a variety 
or subdivision of a language. " The French- Canadian dialect " — ■ 
as distinguished from French and from English. 

Diction. The choice of words for the expression of ideas; the 
mode of expression. (See Style.) 

Digest. A compilation or summary. 

Dilemma. Predicament. An argument which presents an antag- 
onist with two absolute alternatives, both of them conclusive 
against him. (See Horns of a dilemma.) 

Discursive. Passing from one thing to another; digressive; 
desultory. (The reverse of intensive.) 

Doggerel. Irregular verse ; undignified poetry. 

Double negative. The use of two negatives when only one is 
needed. " He has^^ no money " for " He has no money." 

Effectiveness. The power of producing an effect ; forcefulness. 

Elegy. A poem of lamentation. 

Ellipsis. The omission of one or more words that are obviously 
understood. " The man I know " for " The man whom I know." 

Enthymeme. A syllogism with one premise omitted. (See 
Syllogism.) It implies a link in the reasoning with which everyone 
is familiar. " Kindness is a virtue, therefore kindness is laudable. " 
(The major premise, " virtue is laudable," is omitted.) 



300 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Epic. Epic poem. A kind of narrative poem in which real or 
fictitious events, usually the achievements of some hero, are nar- 
rated in an elevated style. 

Epitome. A condensation ; an abridgment. 

Etymology. That form of study which treats of the history of 
words, tracing out their origins, primitive significance, and changes 
of form and meaning. " Estuary: noun; plural, estuaries; derived 
from the Latin cestuarium, from cestuare, to surge ; also written 
aestuary." 

Eulogy. Something written or spoken in praise of a person or 
thing. 

Euphemism. The expression in a softened or a more delicate 
way of a harsh or indelicate word or expression. " Bad odor " for 
" stink " ; " perspiration " for " sweat." 

Euphony. A pleasing or sweet sound. " Meandering with a 
mazy motion." 

Euphuism. An affectation of excessive elegance and refinement 
of language. " Retire " for " go to bed " ; " limb " for " leg." 

Exordium. An introduction which prepares an audience for the 
main subject. 

Fallacy. An argument which professes to be decisive, while in 
reality it is not. 

Figure of speech. A departure from the literal, not only for the 
sake of adornment, but for the sake of expressiveness as well. You 
can frequently present a fact, or explain a truth more clearly and 
in a more interesting manner if you compare it with something 
else that resembles it either actually or in your imagination. The 
chief figures of speech are simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, 
apostrophe, and personification. 

Simile expresses a resemblance — imaginative rather than literal 
— between two objects or ideas of unlike classes. The resemblance 
must be expressed by the use of like, as, etc. The best similes are 
those in which the ideas compared have one point of resemblance 
and are unlike in all other respects. " That man is like a lion." 

Metaphor implies a resemblance between two objects of unlike 
classes. " That man is a lion." (In simile one object is like another; 
in metaphor one object is another.) 

A mixed metaphor is an obviously faulty combination of meta- 



APPENDIX V 301 

phors. Shakespeare and other great poets have used them some- 
times, but as a general thing they are to be avoided. " To take 
arms against a sea of troubles." {Shakespeare.) " I smell a rat, 
but I shall nip it in the bud! " (Jimmie O'Leary.) 

Personification is a metaphor that attributes human qualities to 
inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or lower animals. " The trees 
whisper in the wind." " Wisdom crieth aloud." 

Apostrophe is a figure by which the writer suddenly turns aside 
from what he is saying and addresses some absent or present person • 
or some personified object. 

" The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, 
While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring ; 
But O heart ! heart ! heart ! 
O the bleeding drops of red, etc." 

Metonymy is the substitution of the name of one object for that 
of another, the two being so closely associated that the mention of 
one suggests the other. " Gray hairs should be respected." (Gray 
hairs is substituted for old age.) 

Synecdoche is the substitution of a part of anything for the whole, 
and vice versa. u Give us this day our daily bread " (bread is sub- 
stituted for food). " The entire town came out to meet him " (entire 
town is substituted for many of the town) . 

Florid. Enriched to excess with flowery figures of rhetoric. 

Good use. A word or construction in good use is one that is 
intelligible to the present generation, to the English-speaking world, 
and is used by the best writers and speakers. 

Heroic meter. Rhymed iambic pentameters. (See Appendix, 
section Versification.) 

Heroic poetry. (See Epic.) 

Homonym. A word having the same sound as another but differ- 
ing from it in meaning — •" sea, see." 

Horns of a dilemma. Alternatives, each of which presents a 
predicament. (See Dilemma.) 

Hyperbole. Exaggeration to the point of impossibility, but with 
no intent to deceive. " He is as strong as a lion." 

Hypothesis. Something not proved, but assumed for the purpose 
of argument, or to account for a fact or occurrence. 



302 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Iambus. A metrical foot made up of one short and one long 
syllable. (See Appendix, section Versification.) " Today." 

Idiom. A use of words sanctioned by usage, peculiar to a par- 
ticular language. " I can make nothing of it" (I cannot under- 
stand it.) 

Impropriety. A word in reputable use, but confused in its mean- 
ing with some other word. An Italian, who heard that " to postpone " 
meant " to put off," said to the conductor, " Please postpone me at 
the next station." 

Induction. Inductive reasoning. (See A posteriori.) 

Inference. A proposition or a conclusion derived from induction 
or deduction. 

Invective. A violent denunciation or accusation. 

Inverted order. When the simple subject and the predicate 
change places in a sentence or a clause. " There came a time " for 
" A time came." 

Issue. Final outcome or result; conclusion. A point in debate 
on which the parties take affirmative and negative positions. 

Limerick. A nonsense poem of five lines, rhyming aa bb a. 

Localism. A word peculiar to a certain community and not 
understood elsewhere. " Spider " for " frying-pan." 

Loose sentence. A sentence in which the sense and grammatical 
construction are such that we can stop at one or more points before 
we come to the end, and yet have a sentence that is grammatically 
complete. A periodic sentence is one in which the sense and gram- 
matical construction are such that neither is complete until we 
come to the end. 

" Sometimes the different parts of our thought are so various, 
and yet so intimately related, that, without a complex sentence, which 
knits together the different strands by means of subordinate clauses, 
participial phrases, and similar modifiers, we should find it impossible 
to bring our meaning to an adequate expression. At other times, 
our ideas take shape one by one, in orderly sequence, but without 
combining or much affecting each other, and accordingly our sen- 
tences fall naturally into the compound structure, and their parts 
are held together by coordinate conjunctions." (Gardner, Kittredge, 
and Arnold, " Elements of English Composition") 

The first sentence is periodic ; the second is loose. 



APPENDIX V 303 

Lyric. A poem appropriate for song; said especially of poetry 
which expresses the individual emotions of the poet. 

Metaphor. (See Figure of speech.) 

Meter. Poetical measure depending on number, quantity, and 
accent of syllables. (See Appendix, section Versification.) 

Metonymy. (See Figure of speech.) 

Modern usage. The present-day use and meaning of a word as 
contrasted with its use and meaning in former times. The word 
" silly " in Chaucer's time (the fourteenth century) meant innocent ; 
today it means weak and foolish. 

National use. To be in national use a word must be intelligible 
to all people of a certain nation. The word " baggage " is not in 
national use ; for, though it is used universally in America, it is not 
in England. In that country the word " luggage " is used for bag- 
gage. 

Non sequitur. A fallacy in deduction. It does not follow. 

Objective, Subjective. Objective is applied to things exterior to 
the mind, and objects of its attention ; subjective, to the operations of 
the mind itself. Hence, an objective motive is some outward thing 
awakening desire;. & subjective, motive is some internal feeling or 
propensity. Objective views are those governed by outward things; 
subjective views are produced or modified by internal feeling. Sir 
Walter Scott's poetry is chiefly objective; that of Wordsworth is 
eminently subjective. {Webster.) 

Ode. A short poem suitable to be sung, characterized by sus- 
tained noble sentiment and appropriate dignity of style. 

Onomatopoeia. A figure of speech in which the sound of a word 
is. imitative of the sound of the thing which the word represents. 
" The buzz of bees." 

Panegyric. An oration or eulogy in praise of some person or 
achievement. 

Parallel structure. (See Balanced sentence.) 

Paraphrase. The giving of the meaning in another form. 

Pathetic fallacy. An effort to harmonize scene and feeling that 
is deliberate or extravagant. " The trees lashed out with their 
arms as though they would seize the lonely wayfarer and tear him 
into shreds." 

Pedantry. Pedantic. A pretension to superior knowledge. 



304 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Periodic sentence. (See Loose sentence.) 

Peroration. The concluding part of an oration; the final sum- 
ming up and enforcement of an argument. 

Personification. (See Figure of speech.) 

Perspicuity. Clearness of expression or thought. 

Phraseology. The mechanical structure of sentences,, or the mode 
in which they are phrased. (See Style.) 

Pleonasm. The use of more words than are necessary to express 
an idea. " I saw it with my own eyes." 

Preciosity. The quality of being overfastidious. 

Premise. (See Syllogism.) 

Present use. A word to be in present use must be intelligible 
to the present generation. " Surgeon " is intelligible to the present 
generation; " chirurgeon," meaning the same thing, is not. 

Prolixity. Unnecessary length and minuteness of discourse; 
tediousness. 

Prosody. The part of grammar that treats of the laws of versi- 
fication. 

Protagonist. One who takes the leading part in a drama ; the hero. 

Provincialism. An expression widely used within certain sections 
of the country, but not used in others. In the South, for instance, 
evening is often used where in the North one would use afternoon. 

Quantity. The measure of a syllable. 

Quatrain. A stanza of four lines, usually of iambic pentameters, 
rhyming alternately. (See Appendix, section Versification.) 

Realism. Fidelity to nature or to real life ; representation with- 
out idealization, and making no appeal to the imagination; ad- 
herence to the actual fact. 

Recondite. Hidden from the mental or intellectual view; ab- 
struse. 

Reductio ad absurdum. The kind of refutation which shows that 
an opponent's position involves an absurd conclusion. 

Redundancy. The using of more words or images than are 
necessary or useful. " He jumps off of the box." 

Reputable use. Words in reputable use are those which are not 
only in present use and in national use, but are used by the best 
speakers and writers. " Well informed " is in reputable use; " well 
posted " (meaning .the same thing) is not. 



APPENDIX V 305 

Rhyme. Correspondence of sound in words or syllables. Usually 
used to refer to a correspondence of sound in the terminating words 
or syllables of two or more verses one succeeding another immediately 
or at no great distance. (See Appendix, section Versification.) 

Rhyme royal. A stanza made up of seven iambic pentameters, 
rhyming ababbcc. (See Appendix, section Versification.) 

Rhythm. A measured, regular, and harmonious flow of vocal 
sounds. 

Romance. A tale of extravagant adventures of love and the like. 

Scansion. The distinguishing of the metrical feet of a verse by 
emphasis, pauses, or otherwise. (See Appendix, section Versification.) 

Sequence. The order of following; arrangement. 

Simile. (See Figure of speech.) 

Slang. Popular, but unauthorized words, phrases, or modes of 
expression. " Beat it " for " run away." 

Solecism. A word used in an ungrammatical construction. 
" It is me " for " It is I." 

Sonnet. A complete poem made up of fourteen iambic pentam- 
eters. The Italian sonnet is divided into two groups, the first 
eight verses forming the octave and the last six the sestet. The rhyme 
order is abba abba cdecde (or cd cd cd). In the Shakespearean sonnet 
the rhyme order is ab ab cd cd ef ef gg. (See Appendix, section Versi- 
fication.) 

Sonorous.^ Impressive in sound ; high-sounding. 

Sources. A term used to indicate the books, etc., from which 
one has obtained information about a certain subject. 

Spenserian stanza. A stanza made up of nine lines: the first 
eight, iambic pentameter, and the ninth, an iambic hexameter. The 
rhyme order is ab ab be be c. (See Appendix, section Versification.) 

Spondee. A metrical foot made up of two long syllables. (See 
Appendix, section Versification.) " I too." 

Stanza. A number of lines or verses forming a division of a song 
or poem, and agreeing in meter, rhyme, number of lines, etc., with 
other divisions. (See Appendix, section Versification.) 

Style. Mode of expressing thought in language, whether oral or 
written; especially, such use of language in the expression of thought 
as exhibits the spirit and faculty of an artist ; choice or arrangement 
of words in discourse ; rhetorical expression. 



306 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Style relates both to language and thought ; diction, to language 
only; phraseology, to the mechanical structure of sentences, or the 
mode in which they are phrased. The style of Burke was enriched 
with all the -higher graces of composition ; his diction was varied 
and copious ; his phraseology, at times, was careless and cumbersome. 
{Webster.) 

Subjective. (See Objective.) 

Sustained effort. A piece of writing of uniform style, extended 
to considerable length. 

Syllogism. The regular logical form of every argument, consist- 
ing of three propositions, of which the first two are called the prem- 
ises, and the last, the conclusion. The conclusion necessarily 
follows from the premises; so that if these are true, the conclusion 
must be true, and the argument amounts to demonstration; as in 
the following example: 

Every virtue is laudable: 
Kindness is a virtue ; 
Therefore kindness is laudable. 

These propositions are denominated respectively the major 
premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion. (Webster.) 

Symbolism. The representation of truths, virtues, vices, etc., by 
emblematic colors, signs, and forms. 

Synecdoche. (See Figure of speech.) 

Synonym. A word conveying the same or approximately the 
same idea. " Tease, vex, irritate. " 

Tautology. A repetition of the same meaning in different words. 
" The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers." " I have got." 

Terse. Short, concise, but at the same time polished. 

Tertium quid. A dilemma that does not present absolute al- 
ternatives; i.e. one which allows for a third alternative or a possible 
way out. 

Transition. A passing from one subject to another. 

Transposed order. A change of the natural order of words in a 
sentence. (Not a frequent occurrence in English.) 

Trite. A word or expression used until it is so common that 
it has lost novelty and interest. " He fell with a dull sickening 
thud:' 



APPENDIX V 307 

Trochee. A metrical foot made up of one long and one short 
syllable. (See Appendix, section Versification.) " Mournful. " 
Verbosity. The use of more words than are necessary. 
Verisimilitude. The quality of having the appearance of truth. 
Verse. A line of poetry. 
Vulgarism. A vulgar word or expression. 

CONTRACTIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS 

A. A. A. American Automobile Association. 

A. A. U. American Athletic Union. 

A. B. or B. A. Bachelor of Arts. 

A. D. Anno Domini (in the year of our Lord). [Lat.] 

A. D. C. Aide-de-camp. 

ad inf. Ad infinitum (to infinity). [Lat.] 

ad int. Ad interim (in the meantime). [Lat.] 

ad lib. Ad libitum (at pleasure). [Lat.] 

ae., set., aetat. JEtatis (of age, aged). [Lat.] 

Anon. Anonymous. 

A. O. H. Ancient Order of Hibernians. 

A. S. P. C. A. American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Animals. 

Bart. Baronet. 

B. C. Before Christ. 
brev. Brevet. 

B. S. Bachelor of Science. 

Cantab. Cantabrigiensis (of Cambridge). [Lat.] 

C. E. Civil Engineer. 

cf. Confer (compare). [Lat.] 
cir., circ, c. Circa (about). [Lat.] 
cm. Centimeter. 
C. O. D. Cash on delivery. 

C. S. A. Confederate States of America. ! 
cwt. Hundredweight. 

D. C. L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
D. D. Doctor of Divinity. 

D. D. S. Doctor of Dental Surgery. 

D. G. Dei gratia (by the grace of God). [Lat.] 

dm. Decimeter. 



308 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

do. Ditto. 

D. V. Deo volente (God being willing). [Lat.] 

D. V. S. Doctor of Veterinary Science. 
Ed. Editor, ed., edit. Edited, edition. 

E. E. Electrical engineer. 

e.g. Exempli gratia (for the sake of example). [Lat.] 

E. M. Mining Engineer. 

Esq. Esquire. This title is placed after the name. Mr. and 
Esq. should never be used together, 
et al. Et alii (and others). [Lat.] 

et seq. Et sequentes, et sequentia (and the following). [Lat.] 
fee. Fecit (he or she did it). [Lat.] 
ff. Following. 
fo., fol. Folio. 
f. o. b. Free on board. 

F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society. 

G. A. R. Grand Army of the Republic, 
gloss. Glossary. 

G. O. P. Grand Old Party (Republican Party). 

H. B. M. His or Her Britannic Majesty. 

H. I. M. His or Her Imperial Majesty. 

H. M. S. His or Her Majesty's Ship. 

Hon. Honorable. 

h. p. Horse power. 

H. R. H. His or Her Royal Highness. 

ib., ibid. Ibidem (in the same place). [Lat.] 

Id. Idem (the same). [Lat.] 

i.e. Id est (that is). [Lat.] 

I. H. S. Iesus Hominum Salvator (Jesus the Saviour of men). 
[Lat.] Abbreviation of the Greek word for Jesus IHSOTS. 

inc. Incorporated. 

incog. Incognito. 

I. N. R. I. Iesus Nazarenus, Rex Iudceorum (Jesus of Nazareth, 
King of the Jews) . [Lat.] 

inst. Instant (present month). 

I. O. U. I owe you. 

I. W. W. Industrial Workers of the World. 

K. C. B. Knight Commander of the Bath. 



APPENDIX V 309 

K. G. Knight of the Garter. 

K. of C. Knights of Columbus. 

K. of L. Knights of Labor. 

Kt, Knt. Knight. 

lat. Latitude. 

L. H. D. Litter arum Humaniorum Doctor (Doctor of the Human- 
ities). [Lat.] 

Litt. D. Doctor of Literature. 

11. Lines. 

LL. D. Doctor of Laws. 

Ion. Longitude. 

L. (or £) s. d. Libra, solidi, denarii (pounds, shillings, pence). 
[Lat.] 

Ltd. Limited. 

M. Monsieur (mister). [French.] 

m. Meter. 

M. A. Master of Arts. 

M. C. Member of Congress. 

M. D. Medical Doctor. 

mdse. Merchandise. 

M. E. Methodist Episcopal, Mining Engineer. 

Memo. Memorandum. 

Messrs. Messieurs (gentlemen). [French.] 

mfg. Manufacturing. 

Mgr. Monseigneur. 

Mile. Mademoiselle (Miss). [French.] 

mm. Millimeter. 

Mme: Madame. 

M. P. Member of Parliament. 

M. S. Master of Science. 

MS. Manuscript. 

N. A. National Army. 

N. B. Nota bene (note well). [Lat.] 

N. G. National Guard. 

non seq. Non sequitur (It does not follow). [Lat.] 

N. S. New Series, New Style. 

n. u. Name unknown. 

ob. Obiit (died) ; obiter (by the way). [Lat.] 



310 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

obs. Obsolete. 

O. E. Old English. 

O. K. All correct (from " oil korrect "). 

o. p. Out of print. 

Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy. 

Ph. G. Graduate in Pharmacy. 

Pinx. Pinxit (he or she painted it). [Lat.] 

P.M. Post meridiem (afternoon). [Lat.] 

pp. Pages. 

P. P. C. Pour prendre conge (to take leave). [French.] 

pro tern. Pro tempore (for the time being). [Lat.] 

prox. Proximo (next month). [Lat.] 

P. S. Post scriptum (postscript). [Lat.] 

pseud. Pseudonym. 

pwt. Pennyweight. 

qu., qy. Query. 

R. G. S. Royal Geographic Society. 

R. H. Royal Highness. 

R. I. P. Requiescat in pace (may he or she rest in peace). [Lat.] 

R. M. S. Royal Mail Service. 

R. N. Royal Navy. 

R. O. T. C. Reserve Officers Training Corps. 

R. S. V. P. Repondez s'il vous plait (answer if you please). 
[French.] 

Sc. D. Doctor of Science. 

seq. Sequentes, sequentia (the following). [Lat.] 

S. G. State Guard. 

sic. Thus; sometimes inserted [sic] to note that an expression, 
spelling, etc., is just as given. [Lat.] 

S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque Romanus (The Roman Senate 
and People). [Lat.] 

Stat. Statim (immediately). [Lat.] 

ster., stg. Sterling. 

stet. Let it stand as it was originally written. [Lat.] 

T. O. Turn over. 

ult., ulto. Ultimo (last month). [Lat.] 

U. S. A. United States Army. 

U. S. N. United States Navy. 



APPENDIX V 311 

U. S. N. R. United States Naval Reserve. 

U. S. S. United States Ship. 

V. C. Victoria Cross. 

vid. Vide (see). [Lat.] 

Vis., Vise, Visct. Viscount. 

viz. Videlicet (namely). [Lat.] 

vs. Versus (against). [Lat.] 

W. C. T. U. Woman's Christian Temperance Union. 

Ye. The or Thee (pronounced the). 

Y. M. C. A. Young Men's Christian Association. 

Y. M. H. A. Young Men's Hebrew Association. 
1 4 , 8 vo , i2 mo . Quarto, octavo, etc. The number indicates the 
number of times a sheet of paper is folded in the preparation of a book. 



APPENDIX VI 

OUTLINE FOR A DEBATE 

Question : Resolved, that municipalities should own and operate 
all public utilities. 

As all debating in the earlier years of High School must be rather 
elementary, the following outline does not pretend to be an elaborate 
brief. It merely gives a few points on both sides of the subject, ar- 
ranged in topics and sub- topics. Almost any advanced composition 
book, and certainly any textbook on debating, would give the ar- 
rangement — according to good practice — of the introduction, body 
of argument, and summary. 

Before debating a question like the one given above, both sides 
must come to an agreement as to exactly what is meant by public 
utilities. The question could very wisely be limited to concern only 
gas and electric lighting, or water-works, or street railways. 

Affirmative 

I. Public utilities are absolutely necessary for all citizens. 

a. Public utilities depend on the use of public property. 

b. The public should not be at the mercy of private corpora- 

tions. 

c. There is a public obligation to furnish citizens with what 

they need. 
II. Experience in other municipalities. 

a. Successful workings of public ownership. 

(Examples.) 

b. Failure of private enterprise. 

(Examples.) 

c. Private corporations corrupt politics. 

i. Favor certain sections and certain individuals. 
312 



APPENDIX VI 313 

III. Condition of labor. 

a. Men working for themselves (i.e. their own government). 

b. Civil Service will insure efficient employees. 

c. Public ownership will eliminate dissatisfaction and strikes. 

IV. Tendency of the times is towards having governments do 

more for their people. 

a. Certain forms of so-called Socialism are not objectionable. 

b. All governments are becoming more efficient. 

Negative 

I. Public ownership of even necessities of life is un-American. 

a. It discourages, 

1. Private initiative. 

2. Employment of capital. 

b. It develops a paternalistic spirit and socialism in govern- 

ment. 
II. Experience in other municipalities. 

a. Failure of public ownership (wasteful) . 

(Examples.) 

b. Success of private enterprise (efficient). 

(Examples.) 

c. Party in power can corrupt politics, 

1. By lowering rates. 

2. By raising wages, 

III. Regulation of rates and service is better than outright owner- 
ship. 

a. States may give municipalities power to fix rates. 

b. All the public wants is good service at a reasonable rate. 

c. Private ownership prevents burden on taxpayers because 

of costly deficits due to politics, bad management, 
etc. 



APPENDIX VII 

SPELLING RULES AND EXERCISES 

[No lists have been given in this book of common prefixes and 
suffixes. The number is very large ; and, moreover, it is difficult to 
draw the line between those that might well be listed in an elementary 
composition book and those that belong in more advanced works. 
Teachers who wish to go into the matter more thoroughly are re- 
ferred to Greenough and Kittredge, Words and Their Ways in Eng- 
lish Speech — particularly Chapter XIV.] 

I. Words of one syllable ending in a single consonant 
preceded by a single vowel double the final consonant 
before a suffix beginning with a vowel. (A suffix is a 
syllable or syllables added to the end of a word: e.g. 
speak-er.) 

hop — hopping, drop — dropper, plan — planning, rub — rubber, 
wrap — wrapped, win — winning, rob — robbery, red — reddish. 

II. Words of more than one syllable ending in a single 
consonant preceded by a single vowel, and accented on 
the final syllable, double the final consonant before a suffix 
beginning with a vowel. 

occur — occurrence, prefer — preferred, control — controller, ac- 
quit — acquitted, regret — regretting, omit — omitted, begin — 
beginner, compel — compelling. 

III. Words of more than one syllable, not accented on 
the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded 

314 



APPENDIX VII 



3*5 



by a single vowel, do not double the final consonant before 
a suffix beginning with a vowel. 

suffer — suffering, offer — offered, develop — developed, conquer 

— conqueror, benefit — benefited, summon — summoning. 
Note traveling or travelling ; kidnaped or kidnapped. 

IV. Final silent e is usually retained before a suffix 
beginning with a consonant. 

hope — hopeful, love — lovely, safe — safety, sincere — sincerely, 
immediate — immediately, comparative — comparatively, separate 

— separately, base — baseness. 
Exceptions : acknowledgment, judgment. 

V. Final silent e is usually dropped before a suffix 
beginning with a vowel. 

come — coming, lose — losing, loose — loosing, persuade — per- 
suading, describe — indescribable, pursue — pursuing, desire — de- 
sirable, shine — shining. 

VI. Words ending in ce or ge retain the e before a suffix 
beginning with a or o, to preserve the soft sound. The 
letters c and g are usually soft before e, but hard before a 
and o. 

changeable, courageous, noticeable, peaceable, unmanageable, 
serviceable, vengeance, outrageous. 

(a) In the following words final e is retained before a 
suffix beginning with a vowel : 

hoe — hoeing, shoe — shoeing, agree — agreeable, dye — dyeing, 
mile — mileage. 

(b) In the following words final e is dropped before a 
suffix beginning with a consonant : 

true — truly, awe — awful, due — duly, argue — argument. 



316 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

[These words cannot be said to be exceptions to the rules govern- 
ing the spelling of words ending in silent e, for the final e in all is part 
of a diphthong.] 

VII. Words ending in ie drop the e when adding ing, 
and change the i to y to avoid the doubling of i. 

die — dying, tie — tying, lie — lying. 

VIII. Ei or ie? E follows c when the sound of the 
diphthong is e (long e) ; i follows all other letters when the 
sound of the diphthong is e. 

receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, deceit, perceive, shield, shriek, 
fierce, niece, believe, grieve, besiege, chief, field, thief, pierce, piece, 
yield. 

Exceptions: weird, seize, leisure, neither. 

IX. Final y, preceded by a consonant, is changed to i 
before a suffix. 

fancy — fanciful, hasty — hastily, ordinary — ordinarily, friendly 
— friendliness, busy — busily — business, heavy — heavily — heavi- 
ness, happy — happier — happiest. 

X. Final y is retained before a suffix beginning with i 
to prevent the doubling of i. 

carry — carrier — but note carrying, study — studious — but 
note studying, reply — replied — but note replying. 

XL The final letter of a word or prefix is usually re- 
tained before the same letter in the suffix or root. 

[We learned in our first spelling lesson that a suffix is a syllable or 
syllables added to the end of a word; e.g. speak-er, p&ss-able. A 
prefix is a syllable or syllables added to tjhe front part of a word ; e.g. 
un-tie, over-take. Some words have both a prefix and a suffix ; e.g. 
un~speak-able. The original form of the word is called the root.] 



APPENDIX VII 317 

exceptional + ly = exceptionally, un + nerve = unnerve, equal 
+ ly = equally, even + ness = evenness, natural + ly = naturally, 
open -f ness = openness, sullen + ness = sullenness, occasional + 
ly = occasionally. 

XII. A prefix or suffix ending in -// generally drops one 
I in derivative words. 

[A derivative word is one formed from another word by adding to 
it a prefix or a suffix, or by changing one or more of its vowels, (a) 
unnerve, formed from the word nerve + the prefix un; (b) hastily, 
formed from the word hasty + the suffix ly (like) ; (c) French, formed 
from the word France'.] 

use + full + ness = usefulness, all + together = altogether, hope 
+ full = hopeful, health + full = healthful, faith + full + ness = 
faithfulness, full + fill = fulfil or fulfill, full + fill + ment = fulfil- 
ment or fulfillment. 

XIII. The prefixes dis and mis do not double the final s 
before a root. If the root begins with s, rule XI applies. 

disarm, mishap, dissolve, mistake, disappoint, misdemeanor, dis- 
obey, misjudge, disinfectant, misspell. 

XIV. Words that were formerly spelled with an ending 
-re are now, in America, generally spelled -er. 

theater, center, sepulcher ; Not theatre, centre, sepulchre. 

XV. Words that were formerly spelled with an ending 
-our are now, in America, generally spelled -or . 

endeavor , parW , color ; Not endeavour, parlour, colour. 

XVI. It is difficult to make a rule governing the spell- 
ing of words that end in -ize or -ise. The tendency in 
America has been to use the ending -ize for the greater 
part of them, though there are still a number spelled -ise. 
The most common of these are ; 



3i-8 



THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 



advertise, advise, arise, compromise, devise, disguise, enterprise, 
exercise, franchise, improvise, merchandise, revise, rise, supervise, 
surmise, surprise. 

XVII. Terminations -sion and -Hon. Words which in 
their shortest form end in -d, -de, -ge, -mil, -rt, -se, -ss, 
take the ending -sion. Other words take the ending -tion. 

pretend — pretension, delude — delusion, emerge — emersion, per- 
mit — permission, pervert — perversion, confuse — confusion, digress 
— digression. 

Exceptions : adhere — adhesion, cohere — cohesion, attend — 
attention, assert — assertion. 

XVIII. It is impossible to make a rule governing the 
spelling of words ending in -ible or -able. Those who have 
studied Latin can follow the general rule that derivatives 
of the first conjugation take -able, while those of the other 
conjugations take -ible. Those who have not, can pretty 
safely spell most words with the ending -able. The follow- 
ing are the most common of those spelled -ible. 






accessible 


admissible 


apprehensible 


audible 


compatible 


comprehensible contemptible convertible 


convincible 


corrigible 


corruptible 


credible 


defensible 


destructible 


digestible 


discernible 


divisible 


edible 


eligible 


enforcible 


expressible 


feasible 


flexible 


forcible 


horrible 


intelligible 


irascible 


legible 


negligible 


perceptible 


permissible 


plausible 


possible 


reprehensible resistible 


responsible 


sensible 


terrible 


visible 




Two hundred words 


frequently misspelled. 




oblige 


privilege 


separate 


excellent 


independent 


mystery 


absence 


fascinate 


fiery 


villain 


proceed 


speeches 


speak 


all right 


guard 


athletic 


opinion 


audience 


grammar 


religious 


comma 
imagine 


repetition 
convenient 


sentence 
comparatively 


clothes 
practical 


government 
embarrass 



APPENDIX VII 



319 



scene 


civil 


sincerely 


column 


apology 


typical 


character 


captain 


treasure 


dealt 


formerly 


exaggerate 


academy 


treacherous 


accommodate 


descent 


obstacle 


college 


article 


conscience 


decent 


shepherd 


minute 


necessary 


conscientious 


immediately 


accidentally agreeable 


professor 


destroy 


committee 


experience 


challenge 


prejudice 


village 


o'clock 


cruelty 


aggravate 


abbreviate 


acquaintance 


preparation 


possession 


to-day 
{or today) 


dormitory 


description 


disappear 


similar 


control 


parallel 


beneficial 


assistance 


until 


choose 


holiday 


surprise 


assistants 


disappoint 


definition 


finally 


extremely 


there 


lightning 


amusement 


approach 


thorough 


their 


strength 


thought 


altogether 


paid 


boundary 


' sense 


partner 


decide 


laboratory 


arouse 


arrange 


officer 


divide 


alcohol 


awkward 


debt 


succeed 


library 


existence 


buoy 


yacht 


grandeur 


accustom 


ascend 


cemetery 


opposite 


duel 


anxiety 


audible 


admissible 


definite 


mischievous 


to-night 
{or tojright) 


magnificence 


preference 


obedience 


endurance 


complexion 


allowance 


bicycle 


to-morrow 


accumulate 


carriage 


innocence 




{or tomorrow) 






dessert 


recommend 


acknowledge 


around 


relative 


desert 


incidentally 


principle 


general 


miscellaneous 


occasion 


development principal 


already 


organize 


February 


angle 


balance 


describe 


appearance 


superintendent always 


ache 


straight 


height 


calendar 


Wednesday 


difference 


eighth 


despair 


governor 


across 


twelfth 


prove 


source 


chauffeur 


auxiliary 


friend 


vegetable 


reference 


stationery 


commercial 


gasoline 


accept 


attendance 


stationary 


complete 


dining 


except 


excite 


fourth 


barrel 


lose 


weather 


precede 


lieutenant 


quiet 


loose 


whether 


forty 



APPENDIX VIII 
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 

Chapters III to V. Tell which of the following are simple 
sentences, explaining fully on what you base your decisions. 
Pick out the subjects, predicates, and objects. Pick out 
the proper and the common nouns. Pick out the transi- 
tive and the intransitive verbs. In the case of the latter, 
tell whether they are complete, linking, or auxiliary verbs. 
Tell whether they are in the active or the passive voice. 
Give the mode and tense. 

In the last exercise supply the correct form (shall or will) 
in the spaces left blank. 

Insert periods, exclamation marks, question marks, and 
hyphens where they are needed. 

Separate by hyphens the syllables in any ten poly- 
syllables. 

Correct any errors there may be in capitalization. 

i. The greatest Scholars are not the wisest men. 

2. For to see and also to be seen. 

3. Comparisons are odious. 

4. the wolf from the back door 

5. Beware of "Had I known" 

6. Fast bind, fast find 

7. Are Corrupted freemen the Worst of slaves 

8. Facts are stubborn things 

9. A Hat not much the worse for wear 

10. (A. Lincoln to John D Johnston, Jan 2, 1851) 

320 



APPENDIX VIII 321 

Your request for eighty dollars I do not think it best to comply 
with now At the various times that I have helped you a little you 

have said to me, "We get along very well now" ; but in a very 

short time I find you in the same difficulty again. Now this can only 
happen by some defect in your conduct. What that defect is, I 
think I know. You are not lazy, and still you are an idler. I doubt 
whether since I saw you, you have done a good whole day's work in 
any one day. You do not very much dislike to work, and still you 
do not work much, merely because it does not seem to you that you 

get much for it. This habit of uselessly wasting time is the 

whole difficulty; it is vastly important to you, and still more so to 
your children, that you break the habit. It is more important to 

them because they live longer and can keep out of an idle habit 

before they are in it, easier than they can get out after they are in. 

you are now in need of some money ; and what I propose is, that 

you go to work, " tooth and nail," for somebody who give you 

the money for it. Let father and your boys take charge of your 

things at home, prepare for a crop and make the crop, and you • 

go to work for the best money that you can get ; and to secure you a 
fair reward for your labor, I now promise you, that for every dollar 

you , between this and the first of May, get for your labor, I ■ 

give you one other dollar By this, if you hire yourself at ten dol- 
lars a month, from me you get ten more, which make twenty 

dollars a month for your work. In this I do not mean you go off 

to St louis, or the lead mines, or the gold mines in California ; but I 

mean you go at it for the best wages you can get in Coles County. 

Now if you do this, you be soon out of debt, and what is better, 

you have a habit that keep you from getting in debt again. 

But if I now clear you of debt, next year you be just as deep in as 

ever. You say if I furnish you the money, you deed me 

the land, and if you don't pay the money back, you deliver pos- 
session. Nonsense If you can't now live with the land, how you 

then live without it You have always been kind to me, and I do 

not mean to be unkind to you. On the contrary, if you but 

follow my advice, you find it worth more than eighty times 

eighty dollars to you. 

Affectionately your brother, 

A Lincoln • 



322 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

Chapters VI to VIII. In the following exercises indicate 
what sentences are compound sentences. Pick out the 
compound subjects and the compound predicates. Pick 
out the words and groups of words that are adjectives ; tell 
whether they are proper or common, descriptive or limit- 
ing ; tell of what degree they are. Pick out the words and 
groups of words that are adverbs. What do the adjectives 
and adverbs modify? Pick out the conjunctions. 

Explain the reason for all quotation marks that are used. 
Supply quotation marks where they may be needed. 

i. Ask me no questions, and I'll tell you no lies. 

2. "Man proposes, but God disposes," remarked the old general. 

3. I could not love thee, Dear, so much, 
Loved I not Honor more. 

4. Suspicions amongst thoughts, says Bacon, are like bats 
amongst birds ; they ever fly by twilight. 

5. Judges ought to remember that their office is to interpret law, 
and not to make law or give law. 

6. Said the philosopher, Glorious men are the scorn of wise men, 
the admiration of fools, the idols of parasites, and the slaves of their 
own vaunts. 

7. All revolutionists, the moment they undertake the actual 
responsibilities of government, become in some sort conservative. 

8. The fly sat upon the axle-tree of the chariot- wheel and said, 
what a dust do I raise ! 

9. O'er the glad waters of the dark blue sea, 

Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free, 
Far as the breeze can bear the billows foam ; 
Survey our empire, and behold our home ! 
These are our realms, no limit to their sway, — 
Our flag the scepter all who meet obey. 

10. Put your trust in God, my boys, but keep your powder dry. 

11. "Will you kindly inform me how far the Tombigbee river 
runs up?" 

"The Tombigbee river doesn't run up at all." 



APPENDIX VIII 323 

12. I am not a Virginian ; I am an American. 

13. Burns o'er the plough sung sweet his wood-notes wild, 
And richest Shakespeare was a poor man's child. 

14. The sweetest grapes hang highest. 

15. I do not know what I may appear to the world ; but to myself 
I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea shore, and 
diverting myself in now and then rinding a smoother pebble or a 
prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all 
undiscovered before me. 

16. He is a worthy gentleman, exceedingly well read. 

17. The supper out of a strange kitchen tastes I , . (What is 

the difference?) 

18. Murmur at nothing : if our ills are reparable, it is ungrateful ; 
if remediless, it is vain. 

19. There are good and bad everywhere. (Be careful !) 

20. She walks in beauty, like the night 
Of cloudless climes and starry skies ; 
And all that's best of dark and bright 
Meet in her aspect and her eyes; 
Thus mellowed to that tender light 
Which heaven to gaudy day denies. 

Chapters IX to XI. Insert the correct pronoun forms 
in the exercises that follow. Pick out all the pronouns ; tell 
what kind they are ; give their case, number, and gender. 
In the case of the possessive pronouns note whether they 
are adjectives. Comment on the different forms of rela- 
tive, interrogative, and demonstrative pronouns used. 

Give the plural forms of the nouns that are in the singular. 

Write out ten sentences containing examples of the 
various uses of the apostrophe. If you wish, select as 
many as you can from these exercises. 

™, v \ are the times that try men's souls. 
These ] J 

2. The God gave us life, gave us liberty at the same time. 



324 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

3 . Who was the mildest-mannered man 
ever scuttled ship or cut a throat ? 

4. That pleasure is at once the most pure, the most elevat- 
ing, and the most intense, is derived, I maintain, from the contempla- 
tion of the beautiful. 

5. Who restraineth self in the use of things lawful, will never 

encroach on things forbidden. 

6. the glory was Greece, 

And the grandeur that was Rome. 

7. " What is it people lose when they grow up ? " 

" Simplicity, I think, chiefly, and vision. They get wise with 
so many little details called facts, that they lose the great view." 

8. Murder will out ; that see we every day. 

9. Uneasy lies the head wears a crown. 

10. Compassion to an offender has grossly violated the laws 

is, in effect, a cruelty to the peaceable subject has observed 

them. 

11. He locked behind self the magic doors close at the 

touch of force, but which force cannot reopen. 

12. They also serve only stand and wait. 

13. Each in narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

14. All his faults are such that one loves all the better for . 

15. We mutually pledge to other our lives, fortunes, 

and sacred honor. 

16. Our ancestors are very good folks ; but are the last ones 

I should like to have a visiting acquaintance with. 

17. What answer do you bring? 

18. is the difference? 

19. As I walked by self, 

talked to myself ; 

And self it said unto : 

"Take care of self, 

Beware of self, 

For nobody careth for thee." 
(Put this in the second and third persons (all genders) singular and 
plural.) 

20. This is the true method of progress : to realize the best 



APPENDIX VIII 325 

can obtain general consent, rather than to establish the very best by- 
force. 

21. A man that hath no virtue in self, ever envieth virtue 

in . 

22. For though body's under hatches, 

His soul has gone aloft. 

23. Nothing except a battle lost can be half so melancholy as a 
battle won. 

24. In this world of imperfection, we gladly welcome even partial 
intimacies. And if we find but one to whom we can speak out of our 
heart freely, with whom we can walk in love and simplicity without 
dissimulation, we have no ground of quarrel with the world or God. 

25. What way does the wind come? What way does he go? 
He rides over the water and over the snow, . 

Through wood and through vale ; and, o'er rocky height 

Which the goat cannot climb, takes his sounding flight ; 

He tosses about in every bare tree, 

As, if you look up, you plainly may see ; 

But how he will come, and whither he goes, 

There's never a scholar in England knows. 

Supply the correct form of the pronoun in the exercises 
given below. After you have done that, supply plural 
forms for singular^forms. Can you improve on the word- 
ing in any way ? 

1. He told (he) and (she) to do their themes on time. 

2. They occupy the position to the left of (she) and (I). 

3. It came as a great blow to (he) and (I). 

4. You have a right to expect of (he) and (I) that ( ) will be 

faithful to ( ) trust. 

5. When I look into (he) eyes and into (you), I read that I can 
trust ( ). 

Chapters XII to XIV. In the following exercises pick 
out all the phrases. Tell of what kind they are and how 
they are used. Pick out the infinitives and the participles ; 



326 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

give the tenses in each case. Comment on the verbal and 
the adjectival force of the participles. 

Correct any errors you can detect in capitalization. 

i. It is the glory of a man to pass by an Offence. 

2. Whosoever is delighted in solitude is either a wild beast or a 
God. 

3. The poorest he that is in America hath a life to lead as the 
richest he. (This was said of England by Colonel Rainborough ; 
can you improve the wording ?) 

4. One of the briefest and queerest wills on record is that of an 
old Western farmer, who, though reputed to be Rich, died penniless. 
His will ran : "in the name of god, amen. There's only one thing I 
leave, i leave the Earth. My relations have always wanted that. 
They can have it." 

5. Beaten with his own rod. 

6. He tripped it lightly over the thin ice whereon he trod. (What 
is wrong with this sentence ?) 

7. Cut my coat after my cloth. 

8. To tell tales out of School. 

9. Mrs. ord took miss Burney to the Salubrious hills of norbury, 
and there administered the balsamic medicine of Social tenderness. 
(This is from the diary of Madame D'Arblay; but don't write like 
this — it is too sweet !) 

10. To hold with the hare and run with the hound. 

11. Born to blush unseen. 

12. Born in a cellar, and living in a garret. 

13. He wrote like an Angel, but talked like poor Poll ! 

14. The following is copied from the Springfield star : " yesterday 
Joseph Marinelli threw a stick of dynamite into a lake near here to 
kill fish. He was buried the next Day." 

15. Better to sink beneath the shock, 
Than moulder piecemeal on the rock ! 

16. But strive still to be a man before your Mother. 

17. Hear ye not the hum of mighty workings? 

18. Too busy with the crowded hour to fear to live or die. 

19. A Mexican inquired at the post Office in austin, if there were 
any letters for him. 



APPENDIX VIII 327 

" Your name, Sir? " asked the clerk. 
" That/' he replied, " You will find upon the letters." 
20. How little we pay our way in. life! Although we have our 
purses continually in our hand, the better part of service goes still 
unrewarded. But I like to fancy that a grateful spirit gives as good 
as it gets. Perhaps the Bazins knew how much I liked them ; per- 
haps they, also, were healed of some slights by the thanks I gave them 
in my manner. 

Chapters XV to XVII. In the exercises given below, 
analyze the different sentences and tell what kind they 
are. Pick out the clauses ; tell what kind they are and 
how they are used ; distinguish between those that are 
restrictive and those that are non-restrictive (descriptive). 
Note the participles and the participial expressions ; com- 
ment on their position in the sentence. Explain the use 
of all the commas. 

1. It hath been an opinion that the French are wiser than they 
seem, and that the Spaniards seem wiser than they are. 

2. Let us no longer cheat our consciences by talking of " filthy 
lucre.' ' Money may always be a beautiful thing ; it is we who make 
it grimy. 

3. If the earth is round, how on earth can it come to an end? 

4. A horse is his who mounts it ; a bridge is his who crosses it ; 
a sword is his who grasps it. 

5. Whether I am praised or blamed, it enables me to advance in 
virtue. 

6. He retreated from the enemy because he had a retreating chin. 

7. And Sir Bors: 
" Ask me not, for I may not speak of it. 

I saw it, and tears were in his eyes." 

8. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery. 

9. When the fight begins within himself, 
A man's worth something ! 

10. Never speak well or ill of yourself. If well, men will not 
believe you; if ill, they will believe a great deal more than you say. 



328 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

ii. Grant graciously what you cannot refuse safely, and con- 
ciliate those you cannot conquer. 

12. To rise at five, dine at nine, sup at five, go to bed at nine, 
makes a man live to ninety-nine. 

13. Most of the change we think we see in life 
Is due to truths being in and out of favor. 

14. What we gain in a free way, is better than twice as much 
in a forced way, and will be more truly ours and our posterity's. 

15. War is murder truly, but is not peace decay? 

16. And when the fight is fierce, the warfare long, 
Steals on the ear the distant triumph song ; 
And hearts are brave again and arms are strong. 

17. She carried about her an indefinable air of having been used 
to love, or admiration probably, of men as well as women; which 
the most exquisitely modest women will sometimes wear, and which 
is unmistakable as it is alluring to the eye. 

18. If eyes were made for seeing, 
Then beauty is its own excuse for being. 

19. — this dried up pedant, this elaborator of small explanations 
about as important as the surplus stock of false antiquities kept in a 
vendor's back chamber, — 

20. Exact knowledge, he knew, was often merely a great treach- 
ery, and fact a dangerous weapon that deceived and might even 
destroy its owner. If he analyzed too carefully, he might analyze 
the whole thing out of existence altogether ! 

Chapters XVIII to XX. Comment on the sentence struc- 
ture in the following selections. Note the kind of sen- 
tences that are used ; their length. Do the sentences and 
the paragraphs possess unity and coherence, and is em- 
phasis correctly placed? Discuss fully, citing special 
instances to support the position you take. What is the 
main thought expressed in each paragraph ? Can you find 
topic sentences in the paragraphs given? Are there any 
incomplete sentences? 

Explain the reason for all the marks of punctuation used. 



APPENDIX VIII 329 

1. While he aspired to heaven, he had his roots deep in earth. 

2. Defer riot charities till death; for certainly, if a man weigh 
it rightly, he that doth so is rather liberal of another man's than of 
his own. 

3. I have perceived but too late, how essential.it is to make the 
study of letters the basis of all intellectual education; the art of 
speech and of good writing exacts a refinement, a suppleness in cer- 
tain organs, which one cannot acquire unless one exercises them in 
youth. 

4. The first, the retort courteous ; the second, the quip modest ; 
the third, the reply churlish ; the fourth, the reproof valiant ; the 
fifth, the countercheck quarrelsome ; the sixth, the lie with circum- 
stance ; the seventh, the lie direct. 

5. Usually they are indolent; but when they are thoroughly 
roused, they are fussy. 

6. Truth can hardly be expected to adapt herself to the crooked 
policies and wily sinuosities of worldly affairs; for truth, like light, 
travels only in straight lines. 

7. There is this difference between happiness and wisdom: he 
that thinks himself the happiest man, really is so ; but he that thinks 
himself the wisest, is generally the greatest fool. 

8. In R. L. Stevenson's story " Markheim " we find, among many 
illuminating and interesting passages, the following : 

You will have to pay for a kind of manner I remark in you today 
very strongly. . . . When a customer cannot look me in the eye, 
he has to pay for it. . . . A shock passed through him, a start 
both of hand and foot, a sudden leap of many tumultuous passions 
to the face ; it passed as swiftly as it came. . . . He did not appear 
to be laughing ; there was something in his face like an eager sparkle 
of hope, but nothing of mirth. . . . You don't know me. All men 
are better than this disguise that grows about and stifles them. . . . 
You would propose to judge me by my acts! Can you not look 
within ? 

9. " My affections to you," wrote Sir William Waller to Sir Ralph 
Hopton on the eve of battle, " are so unchangeable, that hostility 
itself cannot violate my friendship. We are both upon the stage, 
and we must act the parts assigned us in this tragedy. Let us do it 
in a way of honor, and without personal animosities." 



330 THE STUDY OF ENGLISH 

10. Culture looks beyond machinery; culture hates hatred; 
culture has one great passion, the passion for sweetness and light. 
It has one even yet greater, the passion for making them all prevail. 
It is not satisfied till we all come to a perfect man ; it knows that the 
sweetness and light of the few must be imperfect until the raw 
and unkindly masses of humanity are touched with sweetness and 
light. 

ii. Now blessings light on him that first invented this same 
sleep! It covers a man all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak; it 
is meat for the hungry, drink for the thirsty, heat for the cold, and 
cold for the hot. It is the current coin that purchases all the pleas- 
ures of the world cheap, and the balance that sets the king and the 
shepherd, the fool and the wise man, even. 

12. Unbounded courage and compassion joined, 
Tempering each other in the victor's mind, 
Alternately proclaim him good and great, 
And make the hero and the man complete. 

13. " For the people," said Charles I, " truly I desire their liberty 
and freedom as much as anybody whatsoever. But I must tell you, 
their liberty and freedom consist in having government, those laws 
by which their lives and their goods may be most their own." 

14. We charge him (Charles I) with having broken his coronation 
oath ; and we are told that he kept his marriage vow ! We accuse 
him of having given up his people to the merciless inflictions of the 
most hot-headed and hard-hearted of prelates; and the defence is, 
that he took his little son on his knee and kissed him ! We censure 
him for having violated the articles of the Petition of Right, after 
having, for good and valuable consideration, promised to observe 
them ; and we are informed that he was accustomed to hear prayers 
at six o'clock in the morning ! It is to such considerations as these, 
together with his Vandyke dress, his handsome face, and his peaked 
beard, that he owes, we verily believe, most of his popularity with 
the present generation. 

15. These heroes are dead. They died for liberty, they died for 
us. They are at rest. They sleep in the land they made free, under 
the flag they rendered stainless, under the solemn pines, the sad 
hemlocks, the tearful willows, and the embracing vines. They sleep 
beneath the shadows of the clouds, careless alike of sunshine or of 



APPENDIX VIII 331 

storm, each in the windowless palace of rest. Earth may run red 
with other wars ; they are at peace. In the midst of battle, in the 
roar of conflict, they found the serenity of death. I have one senti- 
ment for soldiers living and dead: cheers for the living; tears for 
the dead. 



INDEX 

(See also Glossary and Abbreviations, page 295 f.) 



Abbreviations, 21; — punctuation of, 

(see period). 
Abou ben Adhem, 30 f. 
Abruptness, avoid, 157. 
Accuracy, in description, 214; — in 

exposition, 226. 
Active voice, 26. 
Adams, John, 2 f. 
Addison, Joseph, 46, 138, 142. 
Adjective, 39, 273 ; — clause, 107 ; — in 

description, 218; — or adverb, 47 f . ; 

— phrase, 97. 

Adverb, 47 f., 273; — clause, 107; — 
phrase, 97 ; — or adjective, 47 f . 

Advertisements, 177, 291. 

Affirmative side in a debate, 312. 

Agreement, of demonstrative pronoun, 
83 ; — of relative pronoun, 75. 

"And" group of connectives, 161. 

Angelus, The, 224, 271. 

Announcements, 247. 

Ant Battle, 216 f. 

Antecedent, 67. 

Apostrophe, not used with personal pro- 
nouns, 69. 

Application, for catalogue of a school, 
258; — for position, 257. 

Apposition (appositive) , 124. 

Argumentation, 181, 238; Principles of 

— (Baker and Huntington), 181 ; — 
subjects for themes, 285 f. 

Arrangement of material, in exposition, 
226; — into an outline, 194. 

Article, 39. 

Atlantic Monthly, 166. 

"Atmosphere" of a selection, 206. 

Auxiliary verb, 26. 

Avoid detours and quibbling, 244. 

Awkward construction, rearrangement 
of, 57- 



B 



"Background" of a selection, 206. 
Baker and Huntington, Principles of 

Argumentation, 181. 
Baltimore Sun, 183. 
Bar, Crossing the, 105. 
Barrington, S., 142. 
Barter and Exchange (advertisement), 

291. 
Bascom, J., 232 f. 
Beardsley, R. F., 149 f. 
Bellerophon, Napoleon on the, 63. 
Billings, Josh (H. W. Shaw), 35. 
Bixby, Mrs., letter to, 261 f. 
Blackmore, R. D., 143 f. 
Blank verse, 294. 

Body, of a letter, 250; — of a theme, 3. 
"Bread and Butter" letter, 253, 260. 
Bumblebee, The, 35. 
Burlesque, 58. 

Business letter, 245, 248 f. ; — paper, 
^ 248, 253. 

" But " group of connectives, 161. 
Byron, Lord, 81 f. 



Caffin, Charles H., 163. 
"Can" and "may," 129. 
Capitalization, 5, 90 f. 
"Care of," letters sent in, 254. 
Carlyle, Thomas, 6 f., 8, 153, 218. 
Case, of interrogative pronoun, 75 ; 

of relative pronoun, 75. 
Central thought, 151. 
Chambered Nautilus, The, 64 f. 
Charity, 171. 
Charles I, 330. 

Chesterfield, Earl of, 153, 262 f. 
Choice of words, 190. 
Christmas Carol, 180. 



333 



334 



INDEX 



Chucks, Gentleman, 222 f. 

Clause, 106, 116; — and simple sen- 
tence* (difference), 106; — in com- 
pound sentence (punctuation), 123; 
— position of, to secure proper em- 
phasis, 168. 

Clearness, in description, 214; — in 
exposition, 226; — of expression, 51 f. 

Clough, A. H., 137. 

Coherence, 157, 160 f. ; — ■ and unity 
(difference), 140; — in a paragraph, 

139. 
Collecting material, 204. 
Common adjective, 39. 
Common errors, 128 f. 
Common noun, 25. 
Common-sense order, 160. 
Comparative degree, 40, 47. 
Comparison, of adjectives, 40; — ■ of 

adverbs, 47 ; — of two objects, 40. 
Complete intransitive verb, 26. 
Completeness of expression, 51 f. 
Completeness of thought, degree of, 55. 
Complete thought expressed by sentence, 

19 f. 

Complex sentence, 107 ; — punctuation 

of, 123. 
Compound predicate, 56. 
Compound sentence, 54. 
Compound subject, 56. 
Conclusion of a theme, 3. 
Condolence, letter of, 259. 
Conjunction, 54 f . 
Connecting adverb, 55 f. 
Connective, 161. 

Constitution of the United States, 230 f . 
Constructive side of argumentation, 239. 
Conversation, 156 f. 
Cooper, J. F., 58. 
Coordinate clause, 107; — conjunction, 

54 f- 

Copula, 26. 

Crossing the Bar, 105. 

Cunningham, A., 122. 



D 

Dante, 218. 

D'Arblay, Madame, 326. 

Day is Done, The, 72 f. 

Debate, outline for a, 312. 

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 236. 



Definite article, 39. 

Definiteness, 188 f. 

Demonstrative pronoun, S3. 

Demosthenes, 182. 

Dependent clause, 107. 

Description, 179, 213 f. ; — subjects for 

themes, 282 f. 
Descriptive adjective, 39. 
Descriptive clause, 116 f. 
Destructive side of argumentation, 239. 
Detours, avoid, 244. 
Dickens, Charles, 143, 154, 163, 164, 

180, 183, 207. 
Difference between unity and coherence, 

140. 
Discourse, forms of, 178 f. 
Discussion, 156 f. ; — topics for, 158 f. 
Dissertation upon Roast Pig, 108 f. 
Dog, 185 f., 186. 
Doone, Lorna, 143 f. 
Dubois, L'Abbe, 141. 
Durer, A., artist, 224, 245. 



E 



Editorial, 177. 

Elia, 115; — Essays of, 108 f. 

Emerson, R. W., 141, 240. 

Emphasis, 168 f. ; — in paragraph, 140. 

Emphatic form of pronoun, 68. 

End-stopped line, 293. 

Erasmus, D., frontispiece, 240. 

Errors, common, 128 f. 

Exact word, 161. 

Exciting moment, 205. 

Experience, theme subject based on, 

191 ; — theme subject suggested by, 

187. 
Exposition, 180, 226; — subjects for 

themes, 283 f. 



Fallacies, 242 f. 

Figurative language in poetry, 149. 

Finnigin to Flannigan, 36 f. 

First copy of theme, 195. 

Folding letter paper, 253 f. 

Forgan, D. R., 163. 

Formal closing of a letter, 250. 

Formal letter, 245 f . 

Forms of discourse, 178 f. 



INDEX 



335 



For sale (advertisement), 291. 
French Revolution, 6 f. 
Frith, W. P., artist, 30, 224. 
Future perfect tense, 33. 
Future tense, 33. 
Futurity, 33. 

G 

Gay., J., 240. 

General subjects for themes, 278 f. 

Gerund, 101. 

Gettysburg address, 37 f. 

Gibbon, E., 236. 

Gillilan, S. W., 36 f. 

Goldsmith, O., 142. 

Gondola, How to Manage a, 229 f. 

"Good" and "well," 48. 

Grammatical form, to secure coherence, 

160 f. 
Guizot, F. P. G., 154. 



H 



Hale, E. E., 154. 
Harrison, Major General, 166. 
Harte, Bret, 59, 164 f. 
Harum, David, 66. 
Hazlitt, W., 89. 
Heading of a letter, 248. 
Heathen Chinee, The, 164 f. 
Hesitating, avoid in speaking, 16. 
Hindoo, quotation from the, 182. 
Holbein, H., artist, frontispiece. 
Holman-Hunt, W., artist, 223 f., 234. 
Holmes, O. W., 64 f., 141. 
Hood, Thomas, 17 f. 
Hopton, Sir Ralph, 329. 
Huber, P., 216 f. 
Hugo, Victor, 11 f., 52 f. 
Huguenot, A., 208, 224. 
Humor and Wit, 232 f. 
Hunt-Holman, W., artist, see Holman- 
Hunt. 
Hunt, Leigh, 30 f . 
Hylas, The Nymph's Song to, 94 f . 



Imagination, 148; — theme subject 
based on, 192; — theme subject 
suggested by, 187. 



Imperative mode, 32. 

Incident, theme subject based on, 191. 

Inclosure in a letter, 250. 

Incoherent selections to be rearranged, 

171 f. 
Indefinite article, 39. 
Indefinite pronoun, 84. 
Indentation of first line of paragraph, 

152, 250. 
Independent clause, 107. 
Indian Fairy Book, 42 f. 
Indicative mode, 32. 
Infinitive mode, 32, 101 ; — phrase, 97. 
Interpolation of poetical selection, 89. 
Interrogative pronoun, 75 f. 
Intransitive verb, 25. 
Introduction of a theme, 3. 
/ Remember, I Remember, 17 f. 
Irregular adjectives, 273 f. ; — adverbs, 

274. 
Irrelevant material, exclusion of, 189. 
Irving, Washington, 211 f. 
Israels, J., 163. 
Ivanhoe, 59. 



Jefferson, T., 126 f. 
Jephthah's Daughter, 206 f. 
Jerome in his cell, St., 224, 245. 
Johnson, S., 142, 262 f. 
Joint Committee on Grammatical No- 
menclature, 68. 
Jotting down notes, 188 ; — points, 193 f . 
Julian, Emperor, 236. 



K 



Known to unknown, order, 160. 



La Bruyere, J. de, 170. 

Lady of the Lake, 179 f. 

Lamb, Charles, 108 f. 

Leather Stocking Tales, 59. 

Lee, General R. E., 261. 

Les Mistrables, 11 f., 52 f. 

Letters, suggested subjects for, 287 f. 

Letter- writing, 245 ; — brief suggestions 

about, 72. 
Life Publishing Company, 36 f. 



336 



INDEX 



Light of the World, The, 223 f., 234. 

Limiting adjective, 39. 

Limiting subject of a theme, 188, 193. 

Lincoln, A., 37 f., 181, 261, 321. 

Linking intransitive verb, 26. 

Logical order, 160. 

Logical thought connection, 157. 

Longfellow, H. W., 72 £., 153. 

Loose sentence, 302. 

Lorna Doone, 143 f. 

Lost and found (advertisement), 291. 

Lotjnsbury, Charles, Will of, 233 f. 

Lowell, J. R., 143. 

Luther, M., 240. 

M 

Macaulay, T. B., 138, 143. 

Madeleine, M., 12 f. 

Madison, J., 100. 

Main thought in paragraph, 22 f. 

Making of an American, The, 185. 

Mariner's Compass, 227 f. 

Markheim, 329. 

Marryat, Captain F., 222 f. 

Masque of the Red Death, The, 196 f . 

Master idea, 151. 

Material, collecting of, 204. 

"May" and "can," 129. 

McPhelim, E. J., 115. 

Millais, J. E., artist, 208, 224. 

Millet, J. F., artist, 224, 271. 

Mixing of tenses, avoid, 161. 

Modes (moods), 32. 

Monotone, avoid, 11. 

Monreale, 44. 

"Mood" of a selection, 206. 

Morris, W., 94 f. 

N 



- on the Bellerophon, 



subjects for 



Napoleon, 243 

63. 
Narration, 178, 204 f. 

themes, 281 f. 
Negative side in a debate, 313. 
Newbolt,.H., 184. 
Newman, John, Cardinal, 155. 
Night-Watch, The, 225, 261. 
Non-restrictive clause, 116 f. 
Note-paper, 253. 
Notes, jotting down of, 188; — taking, 

22 f. 



Notices, 247. 

Noun, 25. 

Nymph's Song to Hylas, The, 94 f . 

O 

Object of a sentence, 20. 

Observation, theme subject based on, 

191 ; — theme subject suggested by, 

187. ; 
Opinion is not an argument, 238. 
Oral composition, avoid hesitating, 16; 

— collecting material, 87 f. ; — con- 
versation and discussion, 156 f. ; — 
general directions about manner and 
deportment, 28 f. ; — research, 104; 

— should teach one to express thought 
clearly and completely, 51 f. 

Orchardson, W. Q., artist, 63. 

Order, time, logical or common-sense, 
known to unknown, 160; — known 
to unknown, 227; — time, 205; — 
in description, 214; — in exposition, 
226. 

Outline, 3 f., 189; — arranging material 
for, 194; — for a debate, 312 f. 

Oxford Book of English Verse, 294. 



Paragraph, 138 f. ; — main thought and 
subordinate thought, 22 f. ; — not 
necessary for every important sen- 
tence, 152. 

Parenthetical expression, 124. 

Participial expression, position of, 117. 

Participial phrase, 97. 

Participle, 32, 101; — verbal association 
lost, 102. 

Passive voice, 26. 

Past perfect tense, 33. 

Past tense, 33. 

Penmanship, 1 f. 

Pepys, S., 166. 

Perfect tense, 33. 

Periodic sentence, 302. 

Personality in letter- writing, 268. 

Personal letter, 245, 252 f. 

Personal pronoun, 67 f. 

Phillips, W., 179. 

Philosophy of Rhetoric, 232 f. 

Phrase, 96 f . 

Pickwick Papers, 154, 163, 164, 183, 207. 






INDEX 



337 



Pitch, ii. 

Pitt, W., 170. 

Plural, formation of, 84. 

Poe, E. A., 78 f., 196 f. 

Poetry, interpolation, 89. 

Point of view, 44, 63, 71, 151, 214, 227. 

"Point" or "effect" in a description, 215. 

Police description, 213. 

Pompeii, 219. 

Poole's Index, 104. 

Position, of important and unimportant 
expressions, 118; — of participial 
expressions, 117 ; — of relative clause, 
74; — of words in a sentence, 117; 

— to secure emphasis, 169. 
Positive degree, 40, 47. 
Possessive adjective, 68. 
Possessive pronoun, 68. 
Postscript, 250. 
Predicate, 19. 
Preposition, 98. 
Prepositional phrase, 97. 
Present tense, 33. 

President of the United States, 230 f . 

Principal clause, 107. 

Prior, M., 240. 

Pronoun, 66 f. ; — as adjective, 67. 

Proper adjective, 39. 

Proper noun, 25. 

Proportion, to secure emphasis, 169. 

Prosody, 292. 

Punctuation, apostrophe, 68 f. ; — com- 
ma, 117, 118, 123 f. ; — exclamation 
mark, 20; — hyphen, 26 f. ; — of intro- 
ductory, non-restrictive, and nomina- 
tive absolute participial expressions, 
118, 123; — of envelopes, 255; — 
period, 21; — question mark, 20; 

— quotation marks, 48 f. ; — relative 
clause, 117; — semicolon, 54, 130. 

Purpose, in theme writing, 188. 



Quality, idea of, expressed by " what," 75. 

Quibbling, avoid, 244. 

Quotation, punctuation of, 48, 124. 

R 

Railway Station, 30, 224. 
Rainborough, Colonel, 326 
Raven, The, 78 f. 



Reading aloud, 10 f. 

Reading, theme subject based on, 192 ; 
— theme subject suggested by, 187. 

Rearrangement of awkward construction, 
57- 

Rebecca and Rowena, 59. 

References (accompanying letter of ap- 
plication), 250. 

Reflexive use of pronoun, 68. 

Refutation, 239. 

Related things in groups, arrangement of, 
226. 

Relative, position close to antecedent, 74. 

Relative pronoun, 74 f . 

Rembrandt (R. H. van Rijn), artist, 
225, 261. 

Repetition, avoid, 161. 

Research, 104. 

Resonance, 11. 

Restrictive clause, 116 f. 

Rheims cathedral, 104. 

Rhodes, Cecil, 235. 

Richter, J. P., 162. 

Rus, J. A., 185. 'r 

Robin Hood's Death and Burial, Ballad of, 
208 f. 

Robin, The Origin of the, 42 f . 

Roosevelt, T., 220 f. 

Root, Ellbu, 170. 

Round-Up, The, 220 f. 

Run-on line, 293. 

Ruskin, J., 229 f., 240. 



St. Jerome, see Jerome. 

Salutation in a letter, 249. 

Saul, Song of, 81 f. 

Say Not the Struggle Nought Availeth, 137. 

SCHLEGEL, A. W. VON, 142. 

Scott, Sir W., 179 f. 

Selecting a subject for a theme, 191. 

Selection, idea of, expressed by "which," 

75- 
Sentence, complex, 107 ; — compound, 

54 ; — simple, 19 f . 
Sentence structure, variety in, 134 f. 
Series, words in a (punctuation of), 123 f. 
Service, 149 f. 
"Setting," in description, 222; — of a 

selection, 206. 
"Shall" and "will," 33. 



338 



INDEX 



Shaw, H. W. (Josh Billings), 35- 
Signature, in a letter, 250; — of married 

and of unmarried woman, 252. 
Significance in poetry, 149. 
Simple sentence, 19 f.; — and clause 

(difference), 106. 
Situation wanted (advertisement), 291. 
Social letter, 245, 252 f. 
Solitary Reaper, The, 133. 
Space, amount to give to secure proper 

emphasis, 169. 
Spelling rules and exercises, 314 f. 
Stanley, Mrs. A. J., 182. 
Stars and Stripes, The, 59 f . 
Statement, not an argument, 238. 
Stevenson, R. L., 208, 329. 
Stones of Venice, The, 229 f. 
Subject of a sentence, 19 ; — of a theme, 

5; — of a theme, limiting the, 193; 

— selecting one for a theme, 191. 
Subjects for themes, 278 f. 
Subjunctive mode, 32. 
Subordinate clause, 107 ; — conjunction, 

54 f. ; — thought in a paragraph, 22 f. 
Substantive clause, 107; — phrase, 97. 
Summary, importance of, in argumenta- 
tion, 239. 
Sunday in the Country, 46. 
Sunsets, 149. 

Superlative degree, 40, 47. 
Superscription on envelope, 254. 
Symbolism in poetry, 149. 
Symbols used in criticizing themes, 8 f . 



Tacitus, 219 f. 

Taft, W. H., 182 f. 

Taylor, Jeremy, 141. 

Telegrams, 290 f. 

Telegraph, 291. 

Telephoning, 269. 

Tennyson, A., 105. 

Tense, 33. 

Thackeray, W. M., 58 f. 

"That" and "this," 83. 

Theme, collecting material for, 87 f . ; — 
general directions, 3 f. ; — original 
and corrected copy, 196; — prepara- 
tion of, 4; — research, 104; — sub- 
jects for, 278 f; — symbols used in 
criticizing, 8 f. 



Theme- writing, general suggestions, 187 f. 

"Then" group of connectives, 161. 

"Therefore" group of connectives, 161. 

"This" and "that," 83. 

Thoroughness, in description, 214; — 
in exposition, 226. 

Thread of narrative, 205. 

Time order, 160, 205. 

Times, The London, 263 f. 

Title of a theme, 5. 

Topic sentence, 139, 151; — at begin- 
ning or at end of a paragraph?, 151. 

Toussainfs Last Struggle for Hayti, 178 f. 

Track Team, 132, 225. 

Transition, 227. 

Transitive verb, 25. 

Travels with a Donkey, 208. * 

Troublesome verbs, list of, 274 f. 

U 

"Understood," subject and predicate, 

19 f. 
Unit of speech, 19. 
Unity, 151 ; — and coherence, difference 

between, 140; — in paragraph, 139. 



Variety in sentence structure, 134 f. 

Verb, 25 f., 32 f., 273. 

Verbal noun, 101. 

Versification, 292 f. 

Vest, Senator G. G., 185 f. 

Vita Lampada, 184. 

Volition, 33. 

W 

Waller, Sir William, 329. 

Want (advertisement), 291. 

Warwick, A., 184. 

Washington, G., 23 f., 183. 

"Well" and "good," 48. 

Westcott, E. N., 66. 

Wet Sheet and a Flowing Sea, A, 122. 

Whistler, J. M'N., artist, 8. 

"Will" and "shall," 33. 

Wit and Humor, 232 f. 

Wontner, W., artist, 144. 

Words and their Ways in English Speech, 

314. 
Wordsworth, W., 133. 



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